..續本文上一頁 the current of deluded thinking. He later said, "Few are those who have gone to the other shore, the rest are running up and down on this side." Thus, despite all the lofty ideals and exaltation of Nibbana, not all Buddhists feel inclined to strive for it in this life. Many are content to follow some basic ethical principles, such as generosity and moral precepts, to accumulate positive kamma in the hope of being reborn in a happy realm of existence.
The Buddha mentions three desirable existential attainments (sampatti):
1. The attainment of a human state of existence (manussa-sampatti): The Buddha praised this kind of attainment as having the highest potential for spiritual growth and development.
2. The attainment of heavenly existence as a god or goddess (deva-sampatti): Although the heavenly planes of existence are endowed with all manner of pleasurable experiences and are relatively unaffected by sorrow and pain, yet as far as spiritual development is concerned this proves to be a disadvantage. Heavenly beings are likely to become intoxicated with the sensual pleasures constantly at their disposal. In such an atmosphere, training in spiritual practice is simply an improbable aspiration.
3. Attainment of Nibbana (Nibbana-sampatti): This is the noblest and most exalted of all attainments and is the ultimate goal in Buddhism.
Both human and heavenly realms are still within the sphere of mundane existence and are therefore subject to impermanence, change, and unsatisfactoriness. Nibbana is transcendent and free from the attributes that characterize mundane states.
To achieve any of these attainments, it is necessary to follow the threefold training of morality (sila), concentration (samadhi), and wisdom (pa~n~na).
Buddhist morality refers to training in ethical conduct, entailing conscious restraint of bodily and verbal actions so that they cause harm neither to oneself nor to others. This is a fundamental level of training in Buddhism, especially for those who have dedicated themselves to a religious life. For laity the Buddha often recommended beginning the practice with generosity (dana) as a means of acquiring a proper mental foundation for higher ethical discipline.
The main objectives of morality, according to Buddhism, are self-restraint, purity in personal conduct, and benevolent social interaction. Man is intrinsically wholesome, being of a noble-minded nature. The practice in Buddhist morality aims at preserving that natural state of humanity and wholesomeness. This is accomplished through the observance of certain sets of precepts that are graded into different levels according to different stages of moral maturity. Basically, lay Buddhists follow five precepts: not to kill, not to steal, to refrain from sexual misconduct, not to resort to falsehood, and to refrain from taking intoxicants. The essence of these precepts is moral responsibility to oneself and other beings.
Concentration or samadhi refers to mental discipline. This is a higher training than morality and generosity, as it deals directly with the mind and the deeper levels of consciousness. It entails control and mastery of the mind, which requires more intensive application of effort. Not many people nowadays are interested enough to commit themselves to the serious practice of concentration, although in recent times more and more have come to realize its benefits and have started to take part in the training.
Training in concentration involves one form of meditative discipline, while the development of wisdom concerns another. The Pali term for wisdom is pañña. It is the penetrative insight into reality, understanding things as they really are. This is the understanding of the Four Noble Truths, which is the highest wisdom, and wh…
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