..續本文上一頁ll asleep. But the Buddhist doctrine of kamma does not concern these morally indeterminate actions because they have no ethical implication and have little to do with moral training. However, these very same ordinary actions are potentially good or bad from the moral standpoint if and when they are accompanied by respective moral or immoral volition. With understanding they may be employed for the purpose of moral development or even for spiritual practice. The teachings of kamma concern those volitional actions, including walking, eating, and sleeping, which bear moral significance and provide the ground for moral consideration and cultivation.

　　Defining good and evil

　　Sometimes the terms ”good” and ”evil” are used to translate the Pali kusala and akusala, but students should also be aware of the fine points of distinction that exist between them and keep in mind those differences when referring to specific instances concerning Buddhist ethical values. For example, detachment, being content with little, and renunciation are considered kusala, but they are not necessarily good for most people; melancholy, attachment, and worry are akusala, but they are not generally taken to be evil. Even greed, positively an akusala state, may often be considered good by some, say, in business and politics. The concepts of good and evil have something to do with social values, whereas kusala and akusala are more connected to the inner qualities of the mind. That is why non-judgmental terms like ”wholesome” or ”unwholesome” are more preferable. If ”good” and ”evil” are used, they should be used with due caution and awareness.

　　Kusala and akusala are mental qualities, which initially affect the conditions of the mind. From this source of actions, kamma is performed through the body, the speech, or the mind itself. Thus wholesome or unwholesome actions are generally determined by the condition or the contents of the mind. Buddhist commentators define kusala as being characterized by (1) a healthy mind which is free from illness and affliction (arogya); (2) a clear mind which is untarnished and unstained (anavajja); (3) a judicious mind imbued with wisdom and knowledge (kosalasambhuta); and (4) a content and happy mind which has well-being as its reward (sukhavipaka). The definition of akusala is directly opposite to that of kusala for it is associated with the mind that is weak and unhealthy, harmful, ignorant (lacking in knowledge and understanding), and resulting in pain and suffering.

　　Thus kusala represents the mental conditions that promote mental quality, and akusala is that which causes mental degeneration and brings down the quality and efficiency of the mind.

　　Examples of wholesome and unwholesome kamma

　　If we understand the explanation given above, there will be no problem distinguishing wholesome from unwholesome actions. In general we may say that such positive actions as charity, meditation, and supporting one”s parents are wholesome, and negative actions such as quarreling, stealing, and making fun of others are unwholesome. This is almost a matter of common sense. Nevertheless, for the sake of further clarity in the subject we may refer to the Buddha”s teachings on the ten unwholesome actions and the corresponding wholesome ones.

　　There are three unwholesome actions that are performed through body, namely, killing, taking what is not given, and indulgence in sexual misconduct. There are four kinds of verbal actions which are unwholesome: false speech, malicious or slanderous speech, harsh speech, and frivolous speech. There are three kinds of unwholesome mental actions: covetousness, ill will, and false view. In nature and content, these last three are closely identified with the three roots of unskillful action, namely, greed, …

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