sphere (-world): s. avacara, loka.
s. samatha.
(animitta): s. ceto-vimutti, vimokkha, vipassana^.
”good conduct”, is 3-fold, in body, speech and mind, and comprises the 10 wholesome courses of action (s. kammapatha). According to A. X, 61, it has sense-control as its condition. See D. 33, A. II, 17; III, 2.
tathata^ (q.v.).
lit.”sitting close by”, i.e. a ”lay adherent”, is any lay follower who is filled with faith and has taken refuge in the Buddha, his doctrine and his community of noble disciples (A. VIII, 25). His virtue is regarded as pure if he observes the 5 Precepts (pan~ca-si^la; s. sikkha^pada). He should avoid the following wrong ways of livelihood: trading in arms, in living beings, meat, alcohol and poison (A. V, 177). See also A. VIII, 75.
lit.”fasting”, i.e.”fasting day”, is the full-moon day, the new-moon day, and the two days of the first and last moonquarters. On full-moon and new-moon days, the Disciplinary Code, the Pa^timokkha, is read before the assembled community of monks (bhikkhu), while on the mentioned 4 moon-days many of the faithful lay devotees go to visit the monasteries, and there take upon themselves the observance of the 8 rules (attha-si^la; sikkha^pada). See A. VIII, 41ff.
to the highest gods, passing: s. ana^ga^mi^.
”investigation, inquiry, pondering”, is one of the 4 roads to power (iddhi-pa^da, q.v.) and one of the 4 factors of predominance (s. paccaya, 3).
”purification”, purity. The ”7 stages of purification” (satta-visuddhi) form the substructure of Upatissa”s Vimutti-Magga (The Path To Freedom), preserved only in Chinese, as well as of Buddhaghosa”s monumental work, Visuddhi-Magga (The Path of Purification), based on the former work.
The only place in the Canon where these 7 kinds of purification are mentioned is M. 24, "The Simile of the Stage-coach" (s.”Path”, §64), wherein their purpose and goal are illustrated. There it is said that the real and ultimate goal does not consist in purification of morality, or of mind, or of view, etc., but in total deliverance and extinction. Now, just as one mounts the first coach and travels to the second coach, then mounts the second coach and travels with it to the third coach, etc., in exactly the same way the goal of (I) the purification of morality (sila-visuddhi) is (II) the purification of mind (citta-visuddhi); its goal: (III) the purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi); its goal: (IV) the purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^vitarana-visuddhi); its goal: (V) the purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); its goal: (VI) the purification by knowledge and vision of the path-progress (patipada^-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); its goal: (VII) the purification of knowledge and vision (n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); but the goal of this purification is deliverance freed from all clinging.
(I) "Purification of morality (si^la-visuddhi) consists of the 4-fold purity of morality (catu-pa^risuddhi-si^la), namely: restraint with regard to the Disciplinary Code (pa^timokkhasamvara-si^la), sense-restraint (indriysamvara-si^la), purity of livelihood (a^ji^vapa^risuddhi-si^la), morality with regard to the 4 requisites (paccaya-sannissita-si^la)" (Vis.M. XVIII). On these 4 terms, s. si^la. - In the case of a layman, it entails the observance of whatever moral rules (5 or more) he has taken upon himself.
(II) "Purification of mind (citta-visuddhi) is a name for the 8 attainments (= absorptions: jha^na, q.v.), as well as for neighbourhood-concentration (upaca^ra-sama^dhi; s. sama^dhi)." (ib.).
(III) "By purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi) is meant the understanding, according to reality, of mind and corporeality (na^marúpa, q.v.)... which is founded on undeludedness (wisdom) as base, and which in manifold ways determines mind and corporeality after overcoming all belief in a persollality (atta^: self, ego.)." (ib.).
(IV) "By purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^-vitarana-visuddhi) is meant the understanding which, by grasping the conditions of this mind and corporeality, has escaped from all doubt with regard to the 3 times (past, present, future)." (ib. XIX)
(V) "By purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is meant that understanding which knows the right path from the wrong path: ”This is the right path, that the wrong path.”" (ib. XX)
In order to attain this 5th stage of purification, one at first should develop methodical insight (naya-vipassana^), i.e. through contemplation of the 5 groups of existence (khandha, q.v.). For whosoever does not yet possess a perfectly developed insight, to him such phenomena as effulgence of light, etc. (see below), arising during insight, may become impediments in the 3 kinds of full understanding here considered (s. parin~n~a^).
”As soon as the manifold ways and characteristics of the 4 Truths (sacca) and the dependent origination (paticcasamuppa^da) have become clear to the meditating disciple, he says to himself: Thus do these things never before arisen arise, and having arisen they disappear again. Thus do the formations of existence ever and again arise as something quite new. But not only are they something new, they are moreover also of limited duration, like a dew-drop at sunrise, like a bubble, like a line drawn with a stick in the water, like a mustard seed placed on the point of an arrow, or like a flash of lightning. Also as something unsubstantial and empty do they appear, as jugglery, as a mirage .... Merely something subject to vanishing arises, and having arisen disappears again.”"
During such insight practice, however, may arise the 10 imperfections (or defilements) of insight (vipassanúpakkilesa): effulgence of light (obha^sa), knowledge (n~a^na), rapture (pi^ti), tranquillity (passaddhi), happiness (sukha), determination (adhimokkha), energy (paggaha), awareness (upattha^na), delight (nikanti). - See Vis.M. XX, 105f. (App.).
Excepting the last one, ”delight”, they are not imperfections or defilements in themselves, but may become a basis for them through the arising of pride or delight or by a wrong conclusion that one of the holy paths has been attained. He, however, who is watchful and experienced in insight practice, will know that these states of mind do not indicate attainment of the true path, but are only symptoms or concomitants of insight meditation.
"Thus far the meditating disciple has determined 3 of the truths, namely while determining the corporeal and mental phenomena he has, through purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of suffering”. While grasping the conditions he has, through purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^-vitarana-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of the origin of suffering”. While determining the right path, he has, through purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of the path” (leading to the extinction of suffering)."
(VI) Purification by knowledge and vision of the path-progress (patipada^-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is the insight perfected in 8 kinds of knowledge, together with the 9th knowledge, the ”knowledge adapting itself to truth”.
By the 8 kinds of knowledge are here meant the following, which are freed from defilements, follow the right process, and are considered as insight, namely:
1. knowledge consisting in contemplation of rise and fall (udayabbaya^nupassana^-n~a^na),
2. in contemplation of dissolution (bhanga^nupassana^-n~a^na),
3. in awareness of terror (or the fearful) (bhayatúpattha^na^-n~a^na),
4. in contemplation of misery (a^di^nava^nupassana^-n~a^na),
5. in contemplation of aversion (nibbida^nupassana^-n~a^na),
6. in the desire for deliverance (muccitu-kamyata^-n~a^na),
7. in reflecting contemplation (patisankha^nupassana^-n~a^na),
8. in equanimity regarding all formations of existence (sankha^rupekkha^-n~a^na) - which is followed by
9. in adaptation to truth (sacca^nulomika-n~a^na).
(1) consists in the meditative observation of the 3 characteristics of existence (impermanence, suffering, no self) in one”s own bodily and mental processes. As long as the mind is still disturbed by the 10 imperfections (s. V), the 3 characteristics will not become fully clear in their true nature. Only when the mind is free from these imperfections can the characteristics be observed clearly.
(2) When through such repeated practice, knowledge and mindfulness have grown keen and the bodily and mental formations become apparent quickly, at that stage the phase of dissolution of these formations will become prominent.
"Consciousness with (e.g.) materiality as its object arises and dissolves. Having reflected on that object, he contemplates the dissolution of (reflecting) consciousness." (Pts.M. I, 57, quoted in Vis.M. XXI, 11).
The 8 blessings of this knowledge are: abandoning the belief in eternal existence (bhava-ditthi), giving up attachment to life, constant right application (of mind to meditative endeavour), a purified livelihood, overcoming of anxiety, absence of fear, acquisition of forbearance and gentleness, conquest of discontent and sensual delight (Vis.M. XXI, 28).
(3) Knowledge consisting in awareness of terror (or fearfulness) is the seeing of terror in the conditions as well as the continuity of existence. For whoso considers the formations as impermanent, to him the conditions of existence (i.e. the karma-formations producing ever new existence) appear as terror, as driving towards death. Whoso considers the formations as misery, to him the continuity of existence appears as terror, as something oppressive. Whoso considers the formations as impersonal, to him the karmaformations, as well as the continuity of existence, appear as terror, as an empty village, as a mirage, etc.
(4) Contemplation of misery (or danger) is another aspect of the awareness of terror: "The origin (of existence) is terror ... continuance of existence is terror ... arising is suffering”, such understanding in the awareness of terror is the knowledge of misery.”Non-arising is bliss”, this is knowledge of the peaceful state (Pts.M. I, 59); that is, the no-more-arising is safety, is happiness, is Nibba^na.
(5) Contemplation of aversion means: aversion for all formations as terror, therefore its name ”awareness of terror” has come into use. Because it has made known the misery of all these formations, therefore it has received the name of ”contemplation of misery” (a^di^nava^nupassana^). Because it has arisen through aversion for those formations, therefore it is known as ”contemplation of aversion” (nibbida^nupassana^).
(6) Knowledge consisting in the desire for deliverance means: the desire for freedom and escape from all formations of existence.. For feeling aversion for all formations, becoming weary of them, finding no more delight in them, the mind does not cling to a single one of all these formations.
(7) Reflecting contemplation is the repeated meditative discernment of the formations of existence, attributing to them the 3 characteristics of existence, with the desire to find deliverance from all forms of existence.
(8) Equanimity regarding all formations: "When the meditator (through reflecting contemplation) has discerned the formations by applying the 3 characteristics to them and sees them as void, he abandons both terror and delight, and becomes indifferent and equanimous with regard to all formations; he neither takes them as I nor as ”mine”; he is like a man who has divorced his wife" (Vis.M. XXI, 61).
Now, while continuing to contemplate the 3 characteristics of existence and perceiving the tranquil lot of Nibba^na as the peace, this equanimity-knowledge becomes the triple gateway to liberation. As it is said (Pts.M. II, p. 48):
"Three gateways to liberation (vimokkha-mukha; s. vimokkha I) lead to escape from the world, namely: that the mind is contemplating all formations as limited, and is rushing forward to the conditionless element (animitta-dha^tu); that the mind is stirred with regard to all formations of existence, and is rushing forward to the desireless element (appanihita-dha^tu); that the mind sees all things as something foreign, and is rushing forward to the void element (sun~n~ata^-dha^tu)."
At this stage, and through the triple gateway, the diversification of path attainment takes place, according to the 7 kinds of noble persons (ariya-puggala, q.v.); on this see Vis.M. XXI, 74ff.
The 6th, 7th and 8th knowledges, according to Vis.M. XXI, form really only one single knowledge in its first, middle and final stages of development. This knowledge is also known as the ”insight leading to path ascent” (vuttha^na-ga^mini^-vipassana^, q.v.).
(9) Adaptation to truth (or conformity with truth) is called that knowledge which, while contemplating impermanency, etc. adapts itself to the preceding 8 kinds of insight-knowledge, as well as to the immediately following supermundane path and to the 37 elements pertaining to enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya-dhamma, q.v.). It is identical with adaptation-knowledge (anuloman~a^na).
"Whosoever has cultivated, developed, and frequently practised ”equanimity regarding all formations” in him arises very strong faith known as determination (adhimokkha-saddha^) and his energy is better exerted, his mindfulness better established, his mind better concentrated, and a still stronger ”equanimity regarding the formations” arises.”Now the path will reveal itself”, thus thinking, the meditator contemplates with his equanimity-knowledge all formations as impermanent, etc., and thereafter that knowledge sinks into the subconscious stream of existence (s. bhavanga-sota^). Immediately afterwards there arises advertence at the mind-door (s. vin~n~a^na-kicca). And just like equanimity-knowledge, the adaptation-knowledge, too, takes as its object the formations, regarding them as something impermanent, miserable and impersonal. Thereupon, while continuing the uninterrupted continuity of consciousness (citta-santati), there arises the 1st impulsive moment (javana, q.v.), called ”preparation” (parikamma), taking the same formations as object. Immediately thereafter, with the same formations as object, there arises the 2nd impulsive moment, known as ”access” (upaca^ra). And again immediately after that, there arises the impulsive moment called ”adaptation” (anuloma)."
(VII) Purification of knowledge and vision (n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is the knowledge associated with any of the 4 kinds of supermundane path-consciousness (s. ariyapuggala).
"Immediately upon this adaptation-knowledge there arises the ”maturity-knowlege” (gotrabhú-n~a^na; s. gotrabhú) taking as object the Unconditioned, the standstill of existence, the absence of becoming, cessation, Nibba^na, while at the same time transcending the rank (gotta = gotra: lineage), designation and plane of the worldling (puthujjana, q.v.), and entering the rank, designation and plane of the Noble Ones (ariya), being the first turning towards Nibba^na as object, the first thinking of it, the first concentration on it, and the condition for the path ... forming the culmination of insight, and never as such coming back again.
””As the immediate continuation following upon that maturity knowledge (gotrabhú-n~a^na), there arises the first path-consciousness (Stream-entrance) forever destroying the first 3 of the 10 fetters of existence (samyojana, q.v.), and closing the entrance to the lower worlds. Immediately after this path-knowledge, there arise, as its result, 2 or 3 path-produced states of consciousness, the fruitional consciousness (phala-citta). Immediately after the sinking of this consciousness into the subconscious stream of existence, the retrospective knowledge (paccavekkhana-n~a^na, q.v.) arises, having the path-consciousness as its object" (Vis.M. XXI). For the 3 higher paths, s. ariya-puggala.
Each of the 4 kinds of path-consciousness performs at the one and the same time 4 functions, namely: the function of full understanding (parin~n~a^, q.v.) of suffering, the function of overcoming (paha^na, q.v.) the origin of suffering, the function of realizing (sacchikiriya^) the extinction of suffering, the function of developing (bha^vana^, q.v.) the supermundane Noble Eightfold Path (magga, q.v.).
See Path of Purification, by Buddhaghosa, tr. by n~yanamoli (BPS); Path of Freedom, by Upatissa (BPS).
Di
佛教教義。意謂真理或實在。主要有四谛、二谛、叁谛等不同說法。
四谛 1、苦谛。苦是受逼迫苦惱之意，主要指叁界生死輪回的苦惱。有叁苦、八苦的不同。叁苦，一爲苦苦，指正在受痛苦時的苦惱；二爲壞苦，是享受快樂結束時的苦惱；叁爲行苦，謂不苦不樂時，爲無常變化的自然規律所支配的苦惱，包括生、老、病、死在內。八苦即生苦、老苦、病苦、死苦、求不得苦、怨憎會苦、愛別離苦、五陰盛苦。佛教認爲，叁苦、八苦有的是社會原因造成的，有的是自然原因造成的。
2、集谛。亦名習谛。集是積聚感招之意。說一切衆生，常時以來，由于貪瞋愚癡的行動，造成的善惡行爲的業因，能感招將來的生死苦果。
3、滅谛。亦名盡谛，爲息滅、滅盡之意，滅盡叁界內之煩惱業因以及生死果報，稱爲滅，也稱了脫生死，從此不再受叁界內的生死苦惱，達到涅槃寂滅境界，即爲解脫。
4、道谛。道爲通達之意，也是道路的意思。這種道路是達到寂滅解脫的方法和手段；原始佛教認爲道谛是指八正道。以後大、小乘又各有發展。佛教認爲依道谛去修行，就能達到寂滅解脫的滅谛。由此途徑確實可以達到解脫生死的目的。
二谛 即真谛和俗谛。又稱第一義谛、世俗谛，或名勝義谛與名言谛。真俗二谛，中觀派的基本思想是緣起性空論，認爲世間出世間萬事萬物，都是由衆多因素相依相持而形成的，是有，稱假有，這就是世俗谛，沒有獨立不變的自性，是空，稱性空，這就是真谛，所以真俗二谛，就是空、有二谛。這是就外在的物境而言。若以主觀認識而論，謂世俗谛是有，這是世間一般人的常識見解；言真谛爲空是二乘聖者特有的超世見解。實際上，說有不住有，談空不落空，空有無礙，才是真俗二谛的正觀。又世俗谛的有，是世間萬事萬物的現象；真谛的空，是世間萬事萬物的本性。緣起才能性空，性空才能緣起，緣起與性空實際是一種事物的兩個方面，相反相成，對立而統一。所以緣起就是性空，性空就是緣起。如《般若經》中說：色即是空，空即是色，不二而二，二而不二。大乘佛教各宗，因爲傳承或立論方法不同，對二谛的解釋也各不相同。有的認爲二谛是理，有的認爲二谛是教。天臺宗認爲二谛或叁谛是真實不虛的谛理，故雲：“叁谛者，天然之性德也。”叁論宗認爲真俗二谛是兩種真實不虛的言教：“二谛者，蓋是言教之通诠，相待之假稱……唯是教門，不關境理。”
叁谛 即空谛、假谛、中道谛。佛教天臺宗所立的谛理。認爲一切事物都由因緣而生，沒有永恒不變的實體，叫做空谛；一切事物其中雖無永恒不變的實體，卻有如幻如化的相貌，叫做假谛；這些都不出法性，不待造作而有，叫做中道谛。一切事物，皆不出此空、假、中叁谛的範疇，故稱爲叁谛之理。《始終心要》說：“叁谛者，天然之性德也，中谛者統一切法，真谛者泯一切法，假谛者立一切法。”又此叁谛，圓融無礙，一即是叁，叁即是一。如觀空時，無假無中無不空；觀假時，無空無中無不假；觀中道時，無空無假無不中，名爲圓融叁谛。《中觀論·四谛品》說：“因緣所生法，我說即是空，亦爲是假名，亦是中道義”。此偈被認爲是圓融叁谛的出處。（劉峰）
Kong
佛教教義。音譯舜若。佛教用來表述“非有”、“非存在”的一個基本概念。佛教各時期、各派別對空的解釋不一。在原始佛教中，空只是整個佛教理論體系中的一個普通概念。部派佛教時期，這一概念成爲當時爭論的重點之一。大乘佛教時期，尤其是般若經系統的大乘思想則進而以空爲其理論基礎。從所否定的對象來說，空可分“我空”、“法空”兩種。我空，即認爲一切有情都是由各個組成元素聚合而成，不斷流轉生滅，因此不存在常一主宰的主體——我，這是小乘佛教的觀點；法空，則認爲一切事物都依賴于一定的因緣或條件才能存在，本身沒有任何質的規定性，但法空並非虛無，它是一種不可描述的實在，稱爲“妙有”，這主要是大乘中觀派闡明的觀點。從論證的方式來說，空可分“分析空”、“當體空”兩種。分析空即從統一之可分解爲若幹部分或因素上，從事物的生滅變化上，說明事物的不實在和不自在，這主要是小乘所采用的方法；當體空則認爲一切事物無須分解，只要用空的理法去觀察，就可以明白它本身就是空的，這主要是大乘所采用的方法。從是否終極真理來說，大乘又把空分成“但空”、“不但空”兩種。把空當作絕對的虛無，認識不到它實際是有的一種存在形式，即一種妙有，就是但空，也叫“惡趣空”；反之，如能認識到事物不但有空的一面，還有不空的一面，認識到空不遣有，有不離空，空中攝有，有內存空，這就是不但空，也叫中道。從上述幾種對空的基本解釋出發，佛教各派還推衍出叁空、四空、六空、七空、十空、十一空、十二空、十四空、十六空、十八空、十九空、二十空等。其中以《大品般若》、《大智度論》所說的十八空影響較大。（方廣錩）
The ”Unformed, Unoriginated, Unconditioned” is a name for Nibba^na, the beyond of all becoming and conditionality.
(equivalents: ahimsa^, avihesa^): ”harmlessness”, nonviolence, absence of cruelty. The ”thought of harmlessness” (or: ”non-cruelty”; avihimsa^-vitakka) is one of the three constituents of right thought (samma^-sankappa), i.e. the 2nd factor of the Eightfold Path (s. magga). In the several lists of ”elements” (dha^tu) appears also an ”element of harmlessness” (avihesa^-dha^tu), in the sense of an elementary quality of noble thought. See Dhp. 225, 261, 270, 300.
consciousness (and b. space), Sphere of: s. jha^na 5, 6.
cf. kappa.
lit.”sad-mindedness”, grief, i.e. mentally painful feeling (cetasika-vedana^), is one of the 5 feelings (vedana^, q.v.) and one of the 22 faculties (indriya, q.v.). According to the Abhidhamma, grief is always associated with antipathy and grudge, and therefore karmically unwholesome (akusala, q.v.) Cf. Tab. I. 30, 31.
Suitable d. for monks; s. sena^sana. Satisfied with whatever d.; s. dhutanga.