action (wholesome or unwholesome); s. karma, karma formations - Right b.a. = samma^-kammanta; s. magga.
postures, the 4: iriya^-patha (q.v.)
Buddha == 佛
Means "the Enlightened One" or "the Awakened One".
s. samma^-sambodhi.
”eye” s. a^yatana. - The foll. 5 kinds of ”eyes” are mentioned and explained in CNid. (PTS, p. 235; the first 3 also in It. 52): 1. the physical eye (mamsa cakkhu), 2. the divine eye (dibba-cakkhu; s. abhin~n~a^), 3. the eye of wisdom (pan~n~a^-cakkhu), 4 the eye of a Buddha (Buddha-c.), 5. the eye of all-round knowledge (samanta-c.; a frequent appellation of the Buddha).
s. vijja^-carana.
ra^ga-c., dosa-c., buddhi-c., etc., are only to be met with in the Com. and Vis.M.
”nature, character”. In Vis.M. III there are explained six types of men: the greedy-natured (ra^ga-carita), the hate-natured (dosa-carita), the stupid or dull-natured (moha-carita), the faithful-natured (saddha^-carita), the intelligent-natured (buddhi-carita), the ruminating-natured (vitakka-carita). - (App.).
contemplation of: one of the 18 chief kinds of insight (vipassana^, q.v.) .
of action (wholesome or unwholesome): kammapatha (q.v.).
”elements”, are the ultimate constituents of a whole.
(1) The 4 physical elements (dha^tu or maha^-bhúta), popularly called earth, water, fire and wind, are to be understood as the primary qualities of matter. They are named in Pa^li: pathavi^-dha^tu, a^po-dha^tu, tejo-dha^tu, and va^yo-dha^tu. In Vis.M. XI, 2 the four elements are defined thus: "Whatever is characterized by hardness (thaddha-lakkkhana) is the earth or solid-element; by cohesion (a^bandhana) or fluidity, the water-element; by heating (paripa^cana), the fire or heat-element; by strengthening or supporting (vitthambhana), the wind or motion-element. All four are present in every material object, though in varying degrees of strength. If, for instance, the earth element predominates, the material object is called ”solid”, etc. - For the analysis of the 4 elements, s. dha^tu-vavattha^na.
(II) The 18 physical and mental elements that constitute the conditions or foundations of the process of perception, are:
1. visual organ (eye) 9. gustative object
2. auditory organ (ear) 10. body-impression
3. olfactory organ (nose) 11. eye-consciousness
4. gustatory organ (tongue) 12. ear-consciousness
5. tactile organ (body) 13. nose-consciousness
6. visible object 14. tongue-consciousness
7. sound or audible object 15. body-consciousness
8. odour or olfactive object
16. mind-element 17. mind-object
(mano-dha^tu) (dhamma-dha^tu)
18. mind-consciousness-element
(mano-vin~n~a^na-dha^tu)
1-10 are physical; 11-16 and 18 are mental; 17 may be either physical or mental. - 16 performs the function of advertence (a^vajjana) towards the object at the inception of a process of sensuous consciousness; it further performs the function of receiving (sampaticchana) the sensuous object. 18 performs, e.g., the function of investigation (santi^rana), determining (votthapana) and registering (tada^rammana) - (for its other functions, s. Table I). For the 14 functions of consciousness, s. vin~n~a^na-kicca.
Cf. M. 115; S. XIV and especially Vibh. II (Guide p. 28f), Vis.M. XV, 17ff.
Of the many further groupings of elements (enumerated in M. 115), the best known is that of the 3 world-elements: the sensuous world (ka^ma-dha^tu), the fine-material world (rúpa-dha^tu), the immaterial world (arúpa-dha^tu); further the sixfold group: the solid, liquid, heat, motion, space, consciousness (pathavi^, a^po, tejo, va^yo, a^ka^sa, vin~n~a^na; s. above I), described in M. 140; see also M. 112.
lit. the ”bearer”, constitution (or nature of a thing), norm, law (jus), doctrine; justice, righteousness; quality; thing, object of mind (s. a^yatana) ”phenomenon”. In all these meanings the word ”dhamma” is to be met with in the texts. The Com. to D. instances 4 applications of this term guna (quality, virtue), desana^ (instruction), pariyatti (text), nijji^vata^ (soullessness, e.g."all dhamma^, phenomena, are impersonal," etc.). The Com. to Dhs. has hetu (condition) instead of desana^. Thus, the analytical knowledge of the law (s. patisambhida^) is explained in Vis.M. XIV. and in Vibh. as hetumhi-n~a^na, knowledge of the conditions.
The Dhamma, as the liberating law discovered and proclaimed by the Buddha, is summed up in the 4 Noble Truths (s. sacca). It forms one of the 3 Gems (ti-ratana, q.v.) and one of the 10 recollections (anussati q.v.).
Dhamma, as object of mind (dhamma^yatana, s. a^yatana) may be anything past, present or future, corporeal or mental, conditioned or not (cf. sankha^ra, 4), real or imaginary.
Dharma == 法
Sanskrit word, means law, truth, anything Buddhist. It is used in the sense of all things, visible or invisible.
(lit.”sight”; ? dis, to see): view, belief, speculative opinion, insight. If not qualified by samma^, ”right”, it mostly refers to wrong and evil view or opinion, and only in a few instances to right view, understanding or insight (e.g. ditthi-ppatta, q.v.; ditthi-visuddhi, purification of insight; ditthi-sampanna, possessed of insight).
Wrong or evil views (ditthi or miccha^-ditthi) are declared as utterly rejectable for being a source of wrong and evil aspirations and conduct, and liable at times to lead man to the deepest abysses of depravity, as it is said in A. I, 22:
"No other thing than evil views do I know, o monks, whereby to such an extent the unwholesome things not yet arisen arise, and the unwholesome things already arisen are brought to growth and fullness. No other thing than evil views do I know, whereby to such an extent the wholesome things not yet arisen are hindered in their arising, and the wholesome things already arisen disappear. No other thing than evil views do I know, whereby to such an extent human beings at the dissolution of the body, at death, are passing to a way of suffering, into a world of woe, into hell." Further in A. I, 23: "Whatever a man filled with evil views performs or undertakes, or whatever he possesses of will, aspiration, longing and tendencies, all these things lead him to an undesirable, unpleasant and disagreeable state, to woe and suffering."
From the Abhidhamma (Dhs) it may be inferred that evil views, whenever they arise, are associated with greed (s. Tab. I. 22, 23, 26, 27).
Numerous speculative opinions and theories, which at all times have influenced and still are influencing mankind, are quoted in the sutta-texts. Amongst them, however, the wrong view which everywhere, and at all times, has most misled and deluded mankind is the personality-belief, the ego-illusion. This personality-belief (sakka^ya-ditthi), or ego-illusion (atta-ditthi), is of 2 kinds: eternity-belief and annihilation-belief.
Eternity-belief (sassata-ditthi) is the belief in the existence of a persisting ego-entity, soul or personality, existing independently of those physical and mental processes that constitute life and continuing even after death.
Annihilation-belief (uccheda-ditthi), on the other hand, is the belief in the existence of an ego-entity or personality as being more or less identical with those physical and mental processes, and which therefore, at the dissolution at death, will come to be annihilated. - For the 20 kinds of personality-belief, see sakka^ya-ditthi.
Now, the Buddha neither teaches a personality which will continue after death, nor does he teach a personality which will be annihilated at death, but he shows us that ”personality”, ”ego”, ”individual”, ”man”, etc., are nothing but mere conventional designations (voha^ra-vacana) and that in the ultimate sense (s. paramattha-sacca) there is only this self-consuming process of physical and mental phenomena which continually arise and again disappear immediately. - For further details, s. anatta^, khandha, paticcasamuppa^da.
"The Perfect One is free from any theory (ditthigata), for the Perfect One has seen what corporeality is, and how it arises and passes away. He has seen what feeling ... perception ... mental formations ... consciousness are, and how they arise and pass away. Therefore I say that the Perfect One has won complete deliverance through the extinction, fading away, disappearance, rejection and casting out of all imaginings and conjectures, of all inclination to the ”vain-glory of ”I” and ”mine." (M. 72).
The rejection of speculative views and theories is a prominent feature in a chapter of the Sutta-Nipa^ta, the Atthaka-Vagga.
The so-called ”evil views with fixed destiny” (niyata-miccha^ditthi) constituting the last of the 10 unwholesome courses of action (kammapatha, q.v.), are the following three: (1) the fatalistic ”view of the uncausedness” of existence (ahetukaditthi), (2) the view of the inefficacy of action” (akiriyaditthi), (3) nihilism (natthikaditthi).
(1) was taught by Makkhali-Gosa^la, a contemporary of the Buddha who denied every cause for the corruptness and purity of beings, and asserted that everything is minutely predestined by fate.
(2) was taught by Púrana-Kassapa, another contemporary of the Buddha who denied every karmical effect of good and bad actions: "To him who kills, steals, robs, etc., nothing bad will happen. For generosity, self-restraint and truthfulness, etc. no reward is to be expected."
(3) was taught by Ajita-Kesakambali, a third contemporary of the Buddha who asserted that any belief in good action and its reward is a mere delusion, that after death no further life would follow, that man at death would become dissolved into the elements, etc.
For further details about these 3 views, s. D. 2, M. 60; commentarial exposition in WHEEL 98/99, P. 23.
Frequently mentioned are also the 10 antinomies (antaga^hika^ miccha^-ditthi): ”Finite is the world” or ”infinite is the world”...”body and soul are identical” or ”body and soul are different” (e.g. M. 63).
In the Brahma^jala Sutta .(D.1), 62 false views are classified and described, comprising all conceivable wrong views and speculations about man and world.
See The All-Embracing Net of Views (Brahma^jala Sutta), tr. with Com. by Bhikkhu Bodhi (BPS).
Further s. D. 15, 23, 24, 28; M. 11, 12, 25, 60, 63, 72, 76, 101, 102, 110; A. II, 16; X, 93; S. XXI, XXIV; Pts.M. Ditthikatha^,. etc.
Wrong views (ditthi) are one of the proclivities (s. anusaya), cankers (s. a^sava), clingings (s. upa^da^na), one of the three modes of perversions (s. vipalla^sa). Unwholesome consciousness (akusala citta), rooted in greed, may be either with or without wrong views (ditthigata-sampayutta or vippayutta); s. Dhs.; Tab I.
On right view (samma^-ditthi), s. magga and M. 9 (Trans. with Com. in ”R. Und.”).
messengers, the 3: deva-dúta (q.v.).
(1) ”pain”, painful feeling, which may be bodily and mental (s. vedana^).
(2) ”Suffering”, ”ill”. As the first of the Four Noble Truths (s. sacca) and the second of the three characteristics of existence (s. ti-lakkhana), the term dukkha is not limited to painful experience as under (1), but refers to the unsatisfactory nature and the general insecurity of all conditioned phenomena which, on account of their impermanence, are all liable to suffering, and this includes also pleasurable experience. Hence ”unsatisfactoriness” or ”liability to suffering” would be more adequate renderings, if not for stylistic reasons. Hence the first truth does not deny the existence of pleasurable experience, as is sometimes wrongly assumed. This is illustrated by the following texts:
"Seeking satisfaction in the world, monks, I had pursued my way. That satisfaction in the world I found. In so far as satisfaction existed in the world, I have well perceived it by wisdom. Seeking for misery in the world, monks, I had pursued my way. That misery in the world I found. In so far as misery existed in the world, I have well perceived it by wisdom. Seeking for the escape from the world, monks, I had pursued my way. That escape from the world I found. In so far as an escape from the world existed, I have well perceived it by wisdom" (A. 111, 101).
"If there were no satisfaction to be found in the world, beings would not be attached to the world .... If there were no misery to be found in the world, beings would not be repelled by the world .... If there were no escape from the world, beings could not escape therefrom" (A. 111, 102).
See dukkhata^. For texts on the Truth of Suffering, see W. of B. and ”Path”.
See The Three Basic Facts of Existence, II. Suffering (WHEEL 191/193).
knowing the measure in bhojane mattan~n~uta^ (q.v.).
Effort == 精進
See Vigor.