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in age eye ill joy LAW law one sel sex utu ZEN aeon alms atta BALA bala body both catu chie deva dosa ends envy fine food gati gems grie hate hell hetu loka lust mada mala mano MARK meat mind moha múla ogha oja^ once open pain path peta rise RUPA rúpa sati talk ties tree unit view void will yoga yoni ZEAL adosa agati ALAYA amata amoha anger ARANA ARHAN ARHAT ASURA asura atta^ aviha bases being belie bhava bodhi bonds cause chaos citta death doors doubt dread faith great greed iddhi image issa^ ja^ti jara^ ji^va ka^ma kalpa kamma KARMA karma kicca kriya kuppa light lobha lower ma^na Ma^ra MAGGA magga merit METTA mirth moral na^ma neyya nicca noble phala pi^ti ra^ga RAKSA right rules sacca sagga sakka satta sekha sense shame si^la sloth space STUPA subha SUDRA sukha SUTRA va^yo vasi^ vatta VIGOR water world wrong YAKSA yokes " a^sava abodes access action alobha ANATTA ANICCA anicca Arahat asekha atappa Avi^ci beauty beings bha^va BHIKSU biases bodily BUDDHA Buddha cakkhu carana carita change course dha^tu dhamma DHARMA ditthi divine dukkha eating EFFORT effort elders ENERGY energy escape favour fixity floods forest friend gantha ghosts GIVING giving gnosis groups growth grudge hearer iriya^ JATAKA javana jewels KARUNA kasina khanti kilesa kiriya kusala lokiya MANTRA marana marvel MATTER matter method metta^ middha misery MUDITA niraya object oma^na phassa picked planes powers PRAJNA purity RAHULA refuge samma^ sangha SANJNA sarana sexual stains suddha sugati sukkha SUMERU taints tanha^ terror torpor trance truths tusita upa^di upadhi usages va^ca^ VAISYA vatthu VEDANA vijja^ virati viriya virtue viveka WISDOM wisdom woeful a^ha^ra a^ji^va a^ka^sa a^ruppa absence agility ahimsa^ AKALIKA AKALIKO AKUSALA akusala ANAGAMI anatta^ anusaya arising avacara avijja^ bhikkhu BRAHMIN cankers cetana^ CHARITY conceit control counter craving created decline desana^ destiny devotee disease duggati emotion factors feeling fetters freedom HSU YUN HUA TOU INDRIYA indriya insight ji^vita kala^pa karuna^ killing KUSHALA lahuta^ mangala mastery matured meaning message miccha^ miracle mudita^ muduta^ mundane navanga neutral nimitta nirodha NIRVANA nirvana nissaya niya^ma obha^sa okkanti old age ottappa patched patigha perfect Preface puggala pun~n~a rapture reality rebirth remorse sa^sana sa^vaka saddha^ SAMADHI samatha sammuti SAMSARA samseva sassata sikkha^ sitting skilful sobhana spheres SRAVAKA sublime sun~n~a thought turning upacaya UPEKKHA vedana^ vibhava vica^ra viha^ra vimutti vipa^ka vipatti vira^ga vitakka vivatta voda^na voka^ra worldly 戒(sila) a^nen~ja a^yatana acquired adherent AKUSHALA AMITABHA ANAGAMIN anussati Appendix atima^na aversion bhavanga BHIKSUNI bondages ca^ritta cemetery cetasika clinging deciding delusion departed DEVOTION dhutanga dogmatic drinking elements eternity exertion extremes fatalism fivefold fruition gladness gotrabhú grasping HINAYANA HUI NENG ill will impurity influxes interest kammanta kin~cana KSATRIYA kukkucca lakkhana learning MAHAMAYA MAHAYANA maintain MAITREYA monkhood MORALITY morality Nibba^na nibba^na nibbatti nibbedha not self opposite PARAMITA PATIENCE patience postures practice progress reaction sakka^ya sama^dhi sambodhi sammatta sampada^ samsa^ra SAMSKARA san~n~a^ sankappa sankhata santa^na scruples sensuous serenity signless sucarita suchness Table II tathata^ te vijja thinking training uddhacca ujukata^ upa^saka upaca^ra upekkha^ uposatha upstream vimamsa^ vimokkha virility visuddhi vitality VOLITION volition 谛(satya) 慧 (Mati) 空(sunya) 業(karma) 瑜伽(yoga) a^rammana a^vajjana abhijjha^ acinteyya adherence adhicitta akanittha anottappa appama^da asankhata attention avihimsa^ avikkhepa avya^kata beautiful behaviour bha^vana^ BOJJHANGA bojjhanga boundless breathing cetokhila character CONDITION cosmogony cowardice deva dúta deviation dhuta^nga domanassa duccarita dukkhata^ dwellings EMPTINESS emptiness ENDURANCE existence eye organ faculties FIVE EYES formation happiness IGNORANCE ignorance immediacy immediate impulsion indulging intention knowledge kolankola lightness lokuttara mahaggata micchatta mind base NAGARJUNA nekkhamma ni^varana nutriment obstacles palibodha parikamma pariyatti patipada^ patipatti pativedha pondering proximity PURE LAND ready wit rúpa loka SAHA LAND sammasana samphassa samyojana sankha^ra SARIPUTRA sena^sana SENSATION SIX DUSTS SIX GUNAS SIX PATHS SIX ROOTS somanassa something suffering ti pitaka ti ratana ti sarana TRAILOKYA treasures TRIPITAKA upa^da^na upa^sika^ vanishing vinipa^ta vya^pa^da worldling YASODHARA 阿含(agama) 法(dharma) a^bhassara aberration abhin~n~a^ abhisamaya absorption adhimokkha ADHITTHANA advertence aggregates ALMSGIVING Ana^ga^mi^ analytical antinomies appendants asmi ma^na avya^pa^da awakenment bhava^sava BODHISATTA Bodhisatta compassion conception conditions confidence contiguity continuity cuti citta detachment DHAMMAPADA dibba loka dibba sota DIVINE EYE ego belief ego entity eka bi^ji^ elasticity enthusiasm equanimity expression EXTINCTION extinction femininity few wishes foundation FOUR PHALA FOUR SEALS functional generation hindrances impression impurities individual inducement intimation ka^ma guna ka^ma loka ka^ma^sava liberality liberation low speech macchariya MAHASATTVA mano kamma MEDITATION meditation messengers MIDDLE WAY mutability obduracies opapa^tika overcoming para^ma^sa paramattha parin~n~a^ patisandhi pattida^na permanency productive punabbhava puthujjana reflection repetition repression repugnance RIGHT VIEW rúpa ka^ya sa^man~n~a sama^patti sensuality SEVEN GEMS SHAKYAMUNI si^labbata SIX PLACES sota^panna sota^patti standstill stinginess successive SUDDHODANA ta^vatimsa tatha^gata TEN POWERS tendencies therava^da TWO DEATHS unprepared unshakable upakkilesa upavica^ra vehapphala vesa^rajja vin~n~a^na vin~n~atti vipalla^sa vipassana^ wrong path ya^ma deva yuganaddha 不害(ahimsa) 識(Vijnana) 無常(anitya) a^nantariya a^po dha^tu abandonment abstentions adhittha^na ahosi kamma alms giving anabhijjha^ ANAPANASATI anupassana^ appicchata^ ariya iddhi ariya magga ariya sacca ariya vamsa arúpa bhava association attachments attainments BODHISATTVA brahma loka chaste life co nascence contentment corruptions cutúpapa^ta defilements deliverance destruction determining development dissolution dosa carita earnestness egolessness EIGHT WINDS enlightened fading away forbearance foundations human world iddhi pa^da immortality indifferent infatuation inoperative inseparable intoxicants itthindriya ka^ma bhava ka^ma ra^ga ka^ya kamma kamma bhava kamma patha kamma vatta karma round khi^na^sava kusala múla loka dhamma LOTUS SUTRA maha^ bhúta mana^yatana manasika^ra mano dha^tu MIDDLE PATH middle path mind object mindfulness na^ma ka^ya NINE REALMS nippapan~ca noble power origination pa^timokkha pada parama PARINIRVANA paritta^bha patipannaka patti da^na penetration perfections performance personality perversions preparatory proficiency pure abodes realization RECOGNITION remembrance rúpa^vacara rúpa^yatana sala^yatana sama si^si^ samuttha^na san~cetana^ san~n~ojana si^vathika^ sikkha^pada supernormal tejo dha^tu tejo kasina temperature THREE ROOTS THREE SEALS ti lakkhana unthinkable unwholesome uprightness vaci^ kamma vavattha^na vicikiccha^ wrongnesses 定 (samadhi) 結集(samgiti) 輪回(samsara) 涅槃(Nirvana) 無我(anatman) 真如(tathata) a^savakkhaya abhinibbatti accumulation adaptability an~n~indriya appaman~n~a^ arúpa^vacara bahula kamma bhava ditthi bhava tanha^ body witness ceto vimutti citta kkhana citta vi^thi conventional corporeality covetousness dhamma cakka DHARMA-WHEEL dibba cakkhu dispensation dissociation divine abode dry visioned fire element FIVE WISDOMS FOUR VIRTUES garuka kamma harmlessness hate natured heat element HEAVENLY EYE hiri ottappa homelessness impermanence inclinations intoxicating janaka kamma ka^ma tanha^ ka^ma^vacara ka^ya sakkhi kamma^yúhana kammaja rúpa kammattha^na karma result kilesa ka^ma light kasina lobha carita mental image mind element momentaneity nesajjikanga ni^la kasina noble abodes non violence pa^tiha^riya pakati si^la pan~ca si^la parinibba^na pasa^da rúpa patisandhika petti visaya pi^ta kasina pleasantness predominance proclivities purification purisindriya ra^ga carita radiant gods recollectons RENUNCIATION restlessness RIGHT ACTION RIGHT EFFORT RIGHT SPEECH rúpa jjha^na rúpa kala^pa rúpa^rammana sacca n~a^na SAKRADAGAMIN sambojjhanga samma^ magga sampajan~n~a santutthita^ SIX INDRIYAS SIX PARAMITA SROTA-APANNA stream entry ▲ 收起
南傳佛教英文辭典 【307】a^ka^sa

  kasina  ”space-kasina  exercise”;  s.  kasina.

南傳佛教英文辭典 【308】a^ruppa

  s.  jha^na.

南傳佛教英文辭典 【309】absence

  natthi-paccaya,  is  one  of  the  24  conditions  (paccaya,  (q.v.).

南傳佛教英文辭典 【310】agility

  lahuta^  (q.v.).

南傳佛教英文辭典 【311】ahimsa^

  s.  avihimsa^.

英漢對照詞典 【312】AKALIKA

akalika  ==  即時的,  不遲滯的,  不受時間限製的,  不待時節

英漢對照詞典 【313】AKALIKO

akaliko  ==  即時的,  不遲滯的,  不受時間限製的,  不待時節

英漢對照詞典 【314】AKUSALA

akusala  ==  惡,不善

南傳佛教英文辭典 【315】akusala

  ”unwholesome”,  ...
are  all  those  karmic  volitions  (kamma-cetana^;  s.  cetana^)  and  the  consciousness  and  mental  concomitants  associated  therewith,  which  are  accompanied  either  by  greed  (lobha)  or  hate  (dosa)  or  merely  delusion  (moha);  and  all  these  phenomena  are  causes  of  unfavourable  karma-results  and  contain  the  seeds  of  unhappy  destiny  or  rebirth.
Cf.  karma,  paticca-samuppa^da  (1),  Tab.  II.

英漢對照詞典 【316】ANAGAMI

anagami  ==  不來,  阿那含

南傳佛教英文辭典 【317】anatta^

  ”not-self”,  non-ego,  egolessness,  impersonality,  ...
is  the  last  of  the  three  characteristics  of  existence  (ti-lakkhana,  q.v.)  The  anatta^  doctrine  teaches  that  neither  within  the  bodily  and  mental  phenomena  of  existence,  nor  outside  of  them,  can  be  found  anything  that  in  the  ultimate  sense  could  be  regarded  as  a  self-existing  real  ego-entity,  soul  or  any  other  abiding  substance.
This  is  the  central  doctrine  of  Buddhism,  without  understanding  which  a  real  knowledge  of  Buddhism  is  altogether  impossible.  It  is  the  only  really  specific  Buddhist  doctrine,  with  which  the  entire  Structure  of  the  Buddhist  teaching  stands  or  falls.  All  the  remaining  Buddhist  doctrines  may,  more  or  less,  be  found  in  other  philosophic  systems  and  religions,  but  the  anatta^-doctrine  has  been  clearly  and  unreservedly  taught  only  by  the  Buddha,  wherefore  the  Buddha  is  known  as  the  anatta^-va^di,  or  ”Teacher  of  Impersonality”.
Whosoever  has  not  penetrated  this  impersonality  of  all  existence,  and  does  not  comprehend  that  in  reality  there  exists  only  this  continually  self-consuming  process  of  arising  and  passing  bodily  and  mental  phenomena,  and  that  there  is  no  separate  ego-entity  within  or  without  this  process,  he  will  not  be  able  to  understand  Buddhism,  i.e.  the  teaching  of  the  4  Noble  Truths  (sacca,  q.v.),  in  the  right  light.  He  will  think  that  it  is  his  ego,  his  personality,  that  experiences  suffering,  his  personality  that  performs  good  and  evil  actions  and  will  be  reborn  according  to  these  actions,  his  personality  that  will  enter  into  Nibba^na,  his  personality  that  walks  on  the  Eightfold  Path.  Thus  it  is  said  in  Vis.M.  XVI:

"Mere  suffering  exists,  no  sufferer  is  found;
The  deeds  are,  but  no  doer  of  the  deeds  is  there;
Nibba^na  is,  but  not  the  man  that  enters  it;
The  path  is,  but  no  traveler  on  it  is  seen."

"Whosoever  is  not  clear  with  regard  to  the  conditionally  arisen  phenomena,  and  does  not  comprehend  that  all  the  actions  are  conditioned  through  ignorance,  etc.,  he  thinks  that  it  is  an  ego  that  understands  or  does  not  understand,  that  acts  or  causes  to  act,  that  comes  to  existence  at  rebirth  ....  that  has  the  sense-impression,  that  feels,  desires,  becomes  attached,  continues  and  at  rebirth  again  enters  a  new  existence"  (Vis.M.  XVII.  117).
While  in  the  case  of  the  first  two  characteristics  it  is  stated  that  all  formations  (sabbe  sankha^ra^)  are  impermanent  and  subject  to  suffering,  the  corresponding  text  for  the  third  characteristic  states  that  "all  things  are  not-self"  (sabbe  dhamma^  anatta^;  M.  35,  Dhp.  279).  This  is  for  emphasizing  that  the  false  view  of  an  abiding  self  or  substance  is  neither  applicable  to  any  ”formation”  or  conditioned  phenomenon,  nor  to  Nibba^na,  the  Unconditioned  Element  (asankhata^  dha^tu).
The  Anatta^-lakkhana  Sutta,  the  ”Discourse  on  the  Characteristic  of  Not-self”,  was  the  second  discourse  after  Enlightenment,  preached  by  the  Buddha  to  his  first  five  disciples,  who  after  hearing  it  attained  to  perfect  Holiness  (arahatta).
The  contemplation  of  not-self  (anatta^nupassana^)  leads  to  the  emptiness  liberation  (sun~n~ata^-vimokkha,  s.  vimokkha).  Herein  the  faculty  of  wisdom  (pan~n~indriya)  is  outstanding,  and  one  who  attains  in  that  way  the  path  of  Stream-entry  is  called  a  Dhamma-devotee  (dhamma^nusa^ri;  s.  ariya-puggala);  at  the  next  two  stages  of  sainthood  he  becomes  a  vision-attainer  (ditthippatta);  and  at  the  highest  stage,  i.e.  Holiness,  he  is  called  ”liberated  by  wisdom”  (pan~n~a^-vimutta).
For  further  details,  see  paramattha-sacca,  paticca-samuppa^da,  khandha,  ti-lakkhana,  na^ma-rúpa,  patisandhi.
Literature:  Anatta^-lakkhana  Sutta,  Vinaya  I,  13-14;  S.22.  59;  tr.  in  Three  Cardinal  Discourses  of  the  Buddha  (WHEEL  17).  -  
Another  important  text  on  Anatta^  is  the  Discourse  on  the  Snake  Simile  (Alagaddúpama  Sutta,  M.  22;  tr.  in  WHEEL  48/49)  .  
Other  texts  in  "Path".  -  Further:  Anatta^  and  Nibba^na,  by  Nyanaponika  Thera  (WHEEL  11);  
The  Truth  of  Anatta^,  by  Dr.  G.  P.  Malalasekera  (WHEEL  94);  
The  Three  Basic  Facts  of  Existence  III:  Egolessness  (WHEEL  202/204)

南傳佛教英文辭典 【318】anusaya

  the  7  ”proclivities”,  inclinations,  or  tendencies  are:  sensuous  greed  (ka^ma-ra^ga,  s.  samyojana),  grudge  (patigha),  speculative  opinion  (ditthi,  q.v.),  sceptical  doubt  (vicikiccha^,  q.v.),  conceit  (ma^na,  q.v.),  craving  for  continued  existence  (bhavara^ga),  ignorance  (avijja^,  q.v.)  (D.  33;  A.  VII,  11,  12).
"These  things  are  called  ”proclivities”  since,  in  consequence  of  their  pertinacity,  they  ever  and  again  tend  to  become  the  conditions  for  the  arising  of  ever  new  sensuous  greed,  etc.””  (Vis.M.  XXII,  60).
Yam.  VII,  first  determines  in  which  beings  such  and  such  proclivities  exist,  and  which  proclivities,  and  with  regard  to  what,  and  in  which  sphere  of  existence.  Thereafter  it  gives  an  explanation  concerning  their  overcoming,  their  penetration,  etc.  Cf.  Guide  VI  (vii).  According  to  Kath.  several  ancient  Buddhist  schools  erroneously  held  the  opinion  that  the  anusayas,  as  such,  meant  merely  latent,  hence  karmically  neutral  qualities,  which  however  Contradicts  the  Therava^da  conception.  Cf.  Guide  V,  88,  108,  139.

南傳佛教英文辭典 【319】arising

  and  vanishing  (of  things).  The  knowledge  consisting  in  the  contemplation  of;  s.  visuddhi  (VI.  1.).

南傳佛教英文辭典 【320】avacara

  ”sphere”,  realm.  The  3  spheres  of  existence  are:  the  sensuous  sphere  (ka^ma^vacara),  the  fine-material  sphere  (rúpa^vacara),  the  immaterial  sphere  (arúpa^vacara)."Which  things  are  of  the  sensuous  sphere  (ka^ma^vacara)?  Whatever  things  exist  within  the  interval  bounded  beneath  by  the  Avi^ci-hell  and  above  by  the  Paranimmitavasavatti-heaven  (s.  deva),  having  therein  their  sphere,  and  being  therein  included,  to  wit:  the  groups  of  existence,  the  elements,  bases  (s.  khandha,  dha^tu,  a^yatana),  corporeality,  feeling,  perception,  mental  formations  and  consciousness,  all  these  things  are  of  the  sensuous  sphere.  -  But  which  things  are  of  the  fine  material  sphere  (rúpa^vacara)?  Whatever  things  exist  within  the  interval  bounded  beneath  by  the  Brahma-world  and  above  by  the  Akanittha-world  (s.  deva),  having  therein  their  sphere,  and  being  therein  included  ...  and  also  consciousness  and  mental  factors  in  one  who  has  entered  the  (fine-material)  absorptions,  or  who  has  been  reborn  in  that  sphere,  or  who  already  during  his  life-time  is  living  in  happiness  (of  the  absorptions),  all  these  things  are  of  the  fine-material  sphere.  -  Which  things  are  of  the  immaterial  sphere  (arúpa^vacara)?  Consciousness  and  mental  factors  arising  within  the  interval  bounded  beneath  by  the  beings  reborn  in  the  sphere  of  unbounded  space  and  above  by  the  beings  reborn  in  the  sphere  of  neither-perception-nor-non-perception  (s.  jha^na  5-8),  and  consciousness  and  mental  factors  in  one  who  has  entered  the  (immaterial  absorptions),  or  who  has  been  reborn  in  that  sphere,  or  who  already  during  his  lifetime  is  living  in  happiness  (of  the  immaterial  absorptions),  all  these  things  are  of  the  immaterial  sphere."  (Cf.  Dhs.  1280,  1282,  1284;  Vibh.  XVIII).  (App.).

南傳佛教英文辭典 【321】avacara

  ka^ma^vacara  is  already  met  with  in  the  oldest  sutta  texts  (e.g.  D.  1).  Rúpa^vacara  and  arúpa^vacara,  however,  occur  probably  for  the  first  time  in  Pts.M.  (I.  83ff.),  while  in  the  Abhidhamma  Canon  and  the  Com.  all  the  3  terms  are  frequently  mentioned  and  explained.

南傳佛教英文辭典 【322】avijja^

  ”ignorance,”  nescience,  unknowing;  synonymous  with  delusion  (moha,  s.  múla),  is  the  primary  root  of  all  evil  and  suffering  in  the  world,  veiling  man”s  mental  eyes  and  preventing  him  from  seeing  the  true  nature  of  things.  It  is  the  delusion  tricking  beings  by  making  life  appear  to  them  as  permanent,  happy,  substantial  and  beautiful  and  preventing  them  from  seeing  that  everything  in  reality  is  impermanent,  liable  to  suffering,  void  of  ”I”  and  ”mine”,  and  basically  impure  (s.  vipalla^sa).  Ignorance  is  defined  as  ”not  knowing  the  four  truths,  namely,  suffering,  its  origin,  its  cessation,  and  the  way  to  its  cessation”  (S.  XII,  4).
As  ignorance  is  the  foundation  of  all  life-affirming  actions,  of  all  evil  and  suffering,  therefore  it  stands  first  in  the  formula  of  Dependent  Origination  (paticca-samuppa^da,  q.v.).  But  for  that  reason,  says  Vis.M.  (XVII,  36f)  ignorance  should  not  be  regarded  as  "the  causeless  root-cause  of  the  world  ...  It  is  not  causeless.  For  a  cause  of  it  is  stated  thus  ”With  the  arising  of  cankers  (a^sava,  q.v.)  there  is  the  arising  of  ignorance”  (M.  9).  But  there  is  a  figurative  way  in  which  it  can  be  treated  as  a  root-cause;  namely,  when  it  is  made  to  serve  as  a  starting  point  in  an  exposition  of  the  Round  of  Existence  ...  As  it  is  said:  ”No  first  beginning  of  ignorance  can  be  perceived,  Bhikkhus,  before  which  ignorance  was  not,  and  after  which  it  came  to  be.  But  it  can  be  perceived  that  ignorance  has  its  specific  condition  (idappaccaya)"  (A.  X,  61).  The  same  statement  is  made  (A.  X,  62)  about  the  craving  for  existence  (bhava-tanha^;  s.  tanha^).  The  latter  and  ignorance  are  called  "the  outstanding  causes  of  kamma  that  lead  to  unhappy  and  happy  destinies"  (Vis.M.  XVII,  38).
As  ignorance  still  exists  -  though  in  a  very  refined  way  until  the  attainment  of  Arahatship  or  Holiness,  it  is  counted  as  the  last  of  the  10  fetters  (samyojana,  q.v.)  which  bind  beings  to  the  cycle  of  rebirths.  As  the  first  two  roots  of  evil,  greed  and  hate  (s.  múla),  are  on  their  part  rooted  in  ignorance,  consequently  all  unwholesome  states  of  mind  are  inseparably  bound  up  with  it.  Ignorance  (or  delusion)  is  the  most  obstinate  of  the  three  roots  of  evil.
Ignorance  is  one  of  the  cankers  (a^sava,  q.v.)  and  proclivities  (anusaya,  q.v.).  It  is  often  called  a  hindrance  (ni^varana;  e.g.  in  S.XV,  3;  A.X,  61)  but  does  not  appear  together  with  the  usual  list  of  five  hindrances.

南傳佛教英文辭典 【323】bhikkhu

  A  fully  ordained  disciple  of  the  Buddha  is  called  a  bhikkhu."Mendicant  monk"  may  be  suggested  as  the  closest  equivalent  for  "Bhikkhu",  literally  it  means  "he  who  begs"  but  bhikkhus  do  not  beg.  They  silently  stand  at  the  door  for  alms.  They  live  on  what  is  spontaneously  given  by  the  supporters.  He  is  not  a  priest  as  he  is  no  mediator  between  God  and  man.  He  has  no  vows  for  life,  but  he  is  bound  by  his  rules  which  he  takes  of  his  own  accord.  He  leads  a  life  of  voluntary  poverty  and  celibacy.  If  he  is  unable  to  live  the  Holy  Life,  he  can  discard  the  robe  at  any  time.

英漢對照詞典 【324】BRAHMIN

Brahmin  ==  婆羅門

The  highest  of  the  four  Indian  Castes  at  the  time  of  Shakyamuni.  They  served  Brahma,  his  offering,  the  keepers  of  the  Vedas,  i.e.  priestly.

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