cf. paccaya (1). - For the five c. of existence, s. paticca-samuppa^da (10).
cf. kappa.
of deliverance, the 3: vimokkha-dva^ra; s. vimokkha I; visuddhi VI, 8.
”envy”, is a karmically unwholesome (akusala) mental factor, which is occasionally associated with hate-rooted consciousness (s. Tab. I. 30, 31,). Explained in Pug. 55.
Raksa == 罗刹
living in the Ghost Path. Like Yaksa, they are evil and violent, but inferior to Yaksa.
and ritual, clinging to mere: (s. samyojana, upa^da^na).
”Truth”. - 1. On the ”two truths”, conventional and ultimale, see paramattha.
2.”The Four Noble Truths” (ariya-sacca) are the briefest synthesis of the entire teachings of Buddhism, since all those manifold doctrines of the threefold canon are, without any exception, included therein. They are: the truth of suffering, of the origin of suffering, of the extinction of suffering, and of the Eightfold Path leading to the extinction of suffering.
I. The 1st truth, briefly stated, teaches that all forms of existence whatsoever are unsatisfactory and subject to suffering (dukkha).
II. The 2nd truth teaches that all suffering, and all rebirth, is produced by craving (tanha^).
III. The 3rd truth teaches that extinction of craving necessarily results in extinction (nirodha) of rebirth and suffering, i.e. nibba^na (q.v.).
IV. The 4th truth of the Eightfold Path (magga) indicates the means by which this extinction is attained.
The stereotype text frequently recurring in the Sutta Pitaka, runs as follows:
I."But what, o monks, is the noble truth of suffering? Birth is suffering, decay is suffering, death is suffering; sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering; in short, the 5 groups of existence connected with clinging are suffering (cf. dukkha, dukkhata).
II.””But what, o monks, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering? It is that craving which gives rise to fresh rebirth and, bound up with lust and greed, now here, now there, finds ever fresh delight. It is the sensual craving (ka^ma-tanha^), the craving for existence (bhava-tanha^), the craving for non-existence or self-annihilation (vibhava-tanha^).
III."But what, o monks, is the noble truth of the extinction of suffering? It is the complete fading away and extinction of this craving, its forsaking and giving up, liberation and detachment from it.
IV."But what, o monks, is the noble truth of the path leading to the extinction of suffering? It is the Noble Eightfold Path (ariya-atthangika-magga) that leads to the extinction of suffering, namely:
1. Right view (samma^-ditthi)2. Right thought (samma^-sankappa) III. Wisdom (pan~n~a^)
3. Right speech (samma^-va^ca^)4. Right action (samma^-kammanta)5. Right livelihood (sammd-djiva) I. Morality (si^la)
6. Right effort (samma^-va^ya^ma)7. Right mindfulness (samma^-sati)8. Right concentration (samma^-sama^dhi) II. Concentration (sama^dhi)
1."What now, o monks, is right view (or right understanding)? It is the understanding of suffering, of the origin of suffering, of the extinction of suffering, and of the path leading to the extinction of suffering.
2."What now, o monks, is right thought? It is a mind free from sensual lust, ill-will and cruelty.
3."What now, o monks, is right speech? Abstaining from lying, tale-bearing, harsh words, and foolish babble (cf. tiraccha^nakatha^).
4."What now, o monks, is right action? Abstaining from injuring living beings, from stealing and from unlawful sexual intercourse (s. ka^mesu miccha^ca^ra).
5."What now, o monks, is right livelihood? If the noble disciple rejects a wrong living, and gains his living by means of right livelihood (s. magga, 5).
6."What now, o monks, is right effort? If the disciple rouses his will to avoid the arising of evil, demeritorious things that have not yet arisen;... if he rouses his will to overcome the evil, demeritorious things that have already arisen;... if he rouses his will to produce meritorious things that have not yet arisen;... if he rouses his will to maintain the meritorious things that have already arisen and not to let them disappear, but to bring them to growth, to maturity and to the full perfection of development; he thus makes effort, stirs up his energy, exerts his mind and strives (s. padha^na).
7."What now, o monks is right mindfulness? If the disciple dwells in contemplation of corporeality ... of feeling ... of mind ... of the mind-objects, ardent, clearly conscious, and mindful after putting away worldly greed and grief (s. satipattha^na).
8."What now, o monks, is right concentration? If the disciple is detached from sensual objects, detached from unwholesome things, and enters into the first absorption ... the second absorption ... the third absorption ... the fourth absorption" (s. jha^na).
In the Buddha”s first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, it is said that the first truth (suffering) is to be fully understood; the second truth (craving) to be abandoned; the third truth (Nibba^na) to be realized; the fourth truth (the path) to be cultivated.
"The truth of suffering is to be compared with a disease, the truth of the origin of suffering with the cause of the disease, the truth of extinction of suffering with the cure of the disease, the truth of the path with the medicine" (Vis.M. XVI).
In the ultimate sense, all these 4 truths are to be considered as empty of a self, since there is no feeling agent, no doer, no liberated one. no one who follows along the path. Therefore it is said:
”Mere suffering exists, no sufferer is found.
The deed is, but no doer of the deed is there.
Nibba^na is, but not the man that enters it.
The path is, but no traveller on it is seen.
”The first truth and the second truth are empty
Of permanency, joy, of self and beauty;
The Deathless Realm is empty of an ego,
And free from permanency, joy and self, the path.”
(Vis.M. XVI)
It must be pointed out that the first truth does not merely refer to actual suffering, i.e. to suffering as feeling, but that it shows that, in consequence of the universal law of impermanency, all the phenomena of existence whatsoever, even the sublimest states of existence, are subject to change and dissolution, and hence are miserable and unsatisfactory; and that thus, without exception, they all contain in themselves the germ of suffering. Cf. Guide, p. 101f.
Regarding the true nature of the path, s. magga.
Literature: Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (in WHEEL 17 and BODHI LEAVES); M. 141; Sacca-Samyutta (S. LVI); Sacca Vibhanga; W. of B.; Vis.M. XVI: The Four Noble Truths by Francis Story (WHEEL 34/35); The Significance of the 4 Noble Truths by V. F. Gunaratna (WHEEL 123).
”heaven”; s. deva (heavenly heings).
the ”King of Gods” (deva^nam-inda), is the lord over the celestial beings in the heaven of the Thirty-Three” (ta^vatimsa, s. deva).
”living being”. This term, just like atta^, puggala, ji^va, and all the other terms denoting ”ego-entity”, is to be considered as a merely conventional term (voha^ra-vacana), not possessing any reality-value. For the impersonality of all existence. s. anatta^, paramattha, puggala, ji^va, satta, paticcasamuppa^da.
a ”noble learner”, a disciple in higher training, i.e. one who pursues the 3 kinds of training (sikkha^, q.v.), is one of those 7 kinds of noble disciples who have reached one of the 4 supermundane paths or the 3 lower fruitions (s. ariya-puggala), while the one possessed of the 4th fruition, or Arahatta-phala, is called ”one beyond training” (asekha, lit.”no more learner”). The worldling (puthujjana, q.v.) is called ”neither a noble learner, nor perfected in learning” (n”eva-sekha-na^sekha). Cf. Pug. 23-25.
organs and objects: s. a^yatana, dha^tu.
stimuli, corporeality responding to: s. a^yatana.
hiri (q.v.).
”morality”, ”virtue”, is a mode of mind and volition (cetana, q.v.) manifested in speech or bodily action (s. karma). It is the foundation of the whole Buddhist practice, and therewith the first of the 3 kinds of training (sikkha^, q.v.) that form the 3-fold division of the 8-fold Path (s. magga), i.e. morality, concentration and wisdom.
Buddhist morality is not, as it may appear from the negative formulations in the Sutta-texts, something negative. And it does not consist in the mere not committing of evil actions, but is in each instance the clearly conscious and intentional restraint from the bad actions in question and corresponds to the simultaneously arising volition.
Morality of the 8-fold Path, namely, right speech, right action and right livelihood, is called ”genuine or natural morality” pakatisi^la), as distinguished from the external rules for monks or laymen, the so-called ”prescribed morality” (pan~n~atti-si^la, q.v.), which, as such, is karmically neutral.
"What now is karmically wholesome morality (kusala-si^la)? It is the wholesome bodily action (ka^ya-kamma, s. karma), wholesome verbal action (vaci^-kamma, s. karma), and also the purity with regard to livelihood which I call morality" (M. 78). Cf. magga, 3-5.
For the 5, 8 and 10 rules, s. sikkha^pada. Further cf. ca^ritta- and va^ritta-si^la.
The 4 kinds of morality consisting of purification (catupa^risuddhi-si^la) are: (1) restraint with regard to the monks” Disciplinary Code, (2) restraint of the senses, (3) purification of livelihood, (4) morality with regard to the 4 requisites (of the monk) .
(1) Restraint with regard to the Disciplinary Code (pa^timokkha-samvara-si^la)."Here the monk is restrained in accordance with the monks” Disciplinary Code, is perfect in conduct and behaviour, and perceiving danger even in the least offences, he trains himself in the rules he has taken upon him" (A . V, 87,109 ,114, etc. ) .
(2) Restraint of the senses (indriya-samvara-si^la)."Whenever the monk perceives a form with the eye, a sound with the ear, an odour with the nose, a taste with the tongue, an impression with the body, an object with the mind, he neither adheres to the appearance as a whole, nor to its parts. And he strives to ward off that through which evil and unwholesome things, greed and sorrow, would arise, if he remained with unguarded senses; and he watches over his senses, restrains his senses" (M 38).
(3) Purification of livelihood (a^ji^va-pa^risuddhi-si^la). It consists therein that the monk does not acquire his livelihood in a way unbefitting to a monk.
(4) Morality with regard to the 4 rcquisites (paccaya-sannissita-si^la). It consists therein that the monk is guided by the right mental attitude when making use of the 4 requisites: robes, almsfood, dwelling and medicine."Wisely reflecting he makes use of his robes ... merely to protect himself against cold and heat, etc. Wisely reflecting he makes use of his almsfood... merely as a prop and support to this body.... Wisely reflecting he makes use of his dwelling... merely to keep off the dangers of weather and to enjoy solitude.... Wisely rerlecting he makes use of the necessary medicines, merely to suppress feelings of sickness that arise, and to reach perfect freedom from suffering" (cf. M. 2).
About these 4 kinds of morality, Vis.M. I gives a detailed exposition.
paccayasannissita-, pacca^vekkhana-si^la:, etc., are terms used in the Com. for the proper contemplation (patisankha^ yoniso) of the 4 requisites of a monk, often dealt with in the old texts (e.g. M. 2). Also the 3 other pa^risuddhi-si^la, as pa^timokkhasamvara-, indriya-, and a^ji^vapa^risuddhi-si^la, though under these names perhaps only known in the Com., are fully dealt with in the old texts, e.g. M.53, D.2, M.2, etc. The terms pannatti- and pan~n~atti-si^la are used only in the Com.
middha, s. ni^varana.
s. a^ka^sa.