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utu atta both catu gati hate hetu lust meat path peta sati talk ties tree unit agati amata ARHAT atta^ citta death doubt faith great ja^ti light merit METTA mirth pi^ti right satta sloth STUPA SUTRA vatta water " action ANATTA Arahat atappa beauty carita dha^tu ditthi eating EFFORT effort fixity forest gantha ghosts growth JATAKA khanti MANTRA MATTER matter method metta^ MUDITA object purity stains sugati taints tanha^ terror torpor trance truths tusita vatthu virati virtue agility anatta^ cetana^ CHARITY conceit control counter created destiny devotee duggati emotion factors fetters HUA TOU insight ji^vita lahuta^ mastery matured mudita^ muduta^ neutral nimitta okkanti ottappa patched patigha perfect rapture reality rebirth samatha sammuti sassata sitting thought turning vimutti vipatti vitakka vivatta a^yatana adherent AMITABHA anussati atima^na ca^ritta cemetery cetasika departed DEVOTION dhutanga dogmatic elements eternity exertion extremes fatalism fruition gotrabhú impurity interest kammanta KSATRIYA maintain MAITREYA MORALITY morality nibbatti not self opposite PARAMITA PATIENCE patience postures practice reaction sammatta sankhata santa^na serenity sucarita Table II tathata^ te vijja thinking training ujukata^ uposatha upstream virility vitality VOLITION volition 谛(satya) 慧 (Mati) acinteyya adhicitta akanittha anottappa asankhata attention avya^kata beautiful breathing cetokhila character CONDITION deva dúta deviation dhuta^nga duccarita dukkhata^ EMPTINESS emptiness existence faculties formation immediate intention lightness lokuttara mahaggata micchatta nutriment obstacles pariyatti patipada^ patipatti pativedha proximity ready wit SARIPUTRA SENSATION SIX DUSTS SIX PATHS SIX ROOTS something ti pitaka ti ratana ti sarana TRAILOKYA treasures TRIPITAKA vinipa^ta aberration absorption ADHITTHANA advertence aggregates analytical antinomies appendants awakenment BODHISATTA Bodhisatta conception conditions contiguity continuity cuti citta detachment dibba sota ego entity elasticity enthusiasm equanimity EXTINCTION extinction femininity foundation functional generation impurities inducement intimation liberality liberation MAHASATTVA MEDITATION meditation mutability opapa^tika paramattha patisandhi pattida^na productive puthujjana reflection repetition RIGHT VIEW sama^patti sensuality si^labbata sota^panna sota^patti standstill stinginess ta^vatimsa tatha^gata TEN POWERS tendencies therava^da TWO DEATHS vin~n~atti wrong path 无常(anitya) a^nantariya a^po dha^tu abandonment abstentions adhittha^na ANAPANASATI appicchata^ association attachments attainments BODHISATTVA chaste life contentment corruptions cutúpapa^ta defilements destruction determining development dissolution dosa carita earnestness EIGHT WINDS enlightened foundations immortality indifferent infatuation inoperative intoxicants itthindriya kamma patha kamma vatta LOTUS SUTRA maha^ bhúta mana^yatana mano dha^tu MIDDLE PATH middle path mind object origination pa^timokkha paritta^bha patipannaka patti da^na penetration perfections personality preparatory realization RECOGNITION rúpa^yatana sala^yatana samuttha^na san~cetana^ si^vathika^ tejo dha^tu tejo kasina temperature THREE ROOTS THREE SEALS ti lakkhana unthinkable uprightness vavattha^na 结集(samgiti) 无我(anatman) 真如(tathata) abhinibbatti accumulation adaptability bhava ditthi bhava tanha^ body witness ceto vimutti citta kkhana citta vi^thi conventional corporeality covetousness dispensation dissociation fire element FOUR VIRTUES hate natured heat element hiri ottappa inclinations intoxicating ka^ma tanha^ kammattha^na karma result light kasina lobha carita mental image mind element momentaneity pa^tiha^riya pakati si^la patisandhika petti visaya pi^ta kasina pleasantness proclivities purification ra^ga carita radiant gods recollectons RENUNCIATION restlessness RIGHT ACTION RIGHT EFFORT RIGHT SPEECH santutthita^ SIX PARAMITA SROTA-APANNA stream entry TEN PARAMITA THREE DOGMAS THREE JEWELS THREE REALMS THREE WISDOM tranquillity TWELVE BASES twin miracle va^yo dha^tu vatthu ka^ma wind element 三界(tridhatu) 铁萨罗(Tissara) Abbreviations ahetuka citta anatta^ va^da anuloma citta attentiveness atthi paccaya birth process cakkhu dha^tu concentration CONTEMPLATION contemplation contentedness deathlessness determination dhamma dha^tu dhamma^yatana ditthi ppatta earth element ENLIGHTENMENT enlightenment FIVE PRECEPTS fixed destiny FOUR FRUITION hadaya vatthu imperfections investigating investigation ka^ya lahuta^ kamman~n~ata^ kammattha^na^ loathsomeness lohita kasina material food mental action nimma^na rati oda^ta kasina pa^gun~n~ata^ patisambhida^ patisankha^na post nascence RIGHT THOUGHT sammuti sacca satipattha^na silent buddha SIX ENTRANCES stream winner subha nimitta tanha^ kkhaya THREE POISONS THREE SHASTRA THREE STUDIES THREE VIRTUES TIEN TAI SECT tittha^yatana TWELVE PLACES TWO OBSTACLES unconditioned understanding verbal action vipacitan~n~u vivatta kappa water element weighty karma 阿旃陀石窟(Ajanta) 舍卫城(Sravasti) 因明(Hetuvidya) a^ka^sa dha^tu abhibha^yatana ahetuka ditthi akiriya ditthi altruistic joy AMITABHA SUTRA asan~n~a satta atta kilamatha auditory organ AVALOKITESVARA buddha^nussati citt’ekaggata^ citta santa^na citta visuddhi devata^nussati dhamma^nussati EIGHTFOLD PATH eightfold path frivolous talk greedy natured habitual karma kalya^na mitta katatta^ kamma marana^nussati natthi paccaya niyata puggala path condition relative truth sahetuka citta samvatta kappa samvega vatthu sangaha vatthu SIX FULFILMENT stupid natured TEN DIRECTIONS TEN GOOD DEEDS transformation transitoriness TWELVE NIDANAS uccheda ditthi uggaha nimitta ugghatitan~n~u upapatti bhava va^ritta si^la vibhava tanha^ vigata paccaya visible object 大圆满(mahasanti) 二谛(twi-satyas) 三谛(tri-satyas) a^na^pa^na sati akusala vitakka avigata paccaya cakkh’ a^yatana characteristics citta sankha^ra deluded natured ditth’upa^da^na ditthi visuddhi EIGHT NEGATIONS EIGHTEEN FIELDS eternity belief FOUR GREAT VOWS gotrabhú n~a^na gustatory organ indriya samatta mental function mental obduracy natthika ditthi nihilistic view olfactory organ pathavi^ dha^tu pathavi^ kasina PRATYEKA-BUDDHA sakka^ya ditthi samatha ya^nika sankhitta citta sappatigha rúpa sceptical doubt SHATIKA SHASTRA sota^pattiyanga SPIRITUAL GHOST stored up karma tadanga paha^na TAKING PRECEPTS tatha^gata bala THREE DELUSIONS THREE OBSTACLES tranquilisation upasama^nussati vitakka vica^ra 百论(Sata-sastra) 大藏经(tri-pitaka) 法界(dharmadhatu) 极乐世界(sukhavati) adhipati paccaya anantara paccaya anatta^ san~n~a^ atthangika magga AVATAMSAKA SUTRA citta vipalla^sa citta^nupassana^ cognitive series dukkha patipada^ EIGHT SUFFERINGS equality conceit faithful natured immaterial world ka^ya gata^ sati ka^ya vin~n~atti karma formations khandha santa^na life infatuation mano san~cetana^ mental formation monks’ community natural morality nava satta^va^sa neyyattha dhamma ni^tattha dhamma nissaya nissita pan~n~a^ vimutti pindapa^tik’anga reversible merit RIGHT LIVELIHOOD round of rebirth santi^rana citta streams of merit supportive karma te ci^varik’anga THIRTY-TWO FORMS THREE EVIL PATHS THREE GOOD PATHS THREE SUFFERINGS tiraccha^na yoni vaci^ vin~n~atti votthapana citta wheel of the law 经量部(Sautrantike) 六度(sad-paramita) 律经(Vinaya-sutra) 三性(tri-svabhava) 四谛(catur-satyas) 吴哥古迹(Angkor Vat) a^nantarika kamma a^nupubbi^ katha^ ahirika anottappa anatta^nupassana^ animitta vimokkha ascending insight bhavanga santa^na cetaso vinibandha cittass’ekaggata^ destructive karma disinterestedness ditthi vipalla^sa FIVE COMMANDMENTS FOREMOST PARAMITA FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS highest knowledge immaterial sphere ineffective karma kusala kammapatha mental advertence n~a^ta parin~n~a^ na^natta san~n~a^ NO STRIFE SAMADHI pakati upanissaya pan~n~atti si^la parikamma nimitta paticcasamuppa^da patta pindik’anga pureja^ta paccaya RIGHT REMEMBRANCE sahaja^ta paccaya santa^na santati sati sambojjhanga sati sampajan~n~a satta^va^sa nava SINGALOVADA SUTRA tatramajjhattata^ TEN DHARMA REALMS TEN WHOLESOMENESS upagha^taka kamma vin~n~a^na tthiti youth infatuation 迦毗罗卫(Kapilavastu) 三学(tisrah siksah) 桑奇大塔(Sanch Stupa) ahetu patisandhika an~n~a^ta^vindriya asankha^rika citta atta va^dupa^da^na catu voka^ra bhava ceto pariya n~a^na corporeality group cycle of existence dha^tu vavattha^na hasituppa^da citta health infatuation karma accumulation maturity knowledge meritorious action nirodha sama^patti patibha^ga nimitta patikkúla san~n~a^ reflex perceptions regenerative karma ruminating natured samatha vipassana^ sampayutta paccaya self mortification SIDDHARTHA GOUTAMA SIX EXTERNAL BASES SIX INTERNAL BASES SPHERE OF NO-THING tada^rammana citta tatra majjhattata^ ti^rana parin~n~a^ tiraccha^na katha^ TWO FORMS OF DEATH vippayutta paccaya wheel of existence 佛所行赞(Buddhacarita) 解脱道论(Vimuttimagga) 四大(caturmahabhuta) 五种姓(panca-gotrani) alcohol prohibition anabhirati san~n~a^ analytical doctrine animitta^nupassana^ answering questions appanihita vimokkha attha patisambhida^ counteractive karma death consciousness discursive thinking FOUR GREAT ELEMENTS FOUR UNLIMITED MIND fruits of monk life gradual instruction inferiority conceit intelligent natured lofty consciousness maha^purisa vitakka majjhima^ patipada^ one group existence RIGHT CONCENTRATION RIGHT UNDERSTANDING samanantara paccaya sampaticchana citta sattakkhattu parama SATYASIDDHI SHASTRA spiritual faculties sun~n~ata^ vimokkha superiority conceit suta maya^ pan~n~a^ TEN GREAT KING VOWS upatthambhaka kamma yamaka pa^tiha^riya 阿底峡(Atisa 982~1054) 大乘经(Mahayana sutra) 寂天(Santideva 约7世纪) 六足论(Satpada sastra) 说一切有部(Sarvastivada) a^kin~can~n~a^yatana access concentration adaptation knowledge akuppa^ ceto vimutti cemetery meditations cinta^ maya pan~n~a^ derived corporeality dhamma patisambhida^ dhamma tthiti n~a^na ditthi nissita si^la five group existence four group existence MANJUSRI BODHISATTVA manovinn~a^na dha^tu NIRVANA WITH RESIDUE niyata miccha^ditthi pa^rami^ pa^ramita^ paccha^ja^ta paccaya parami^ = pa^ramita^ pubbeniva^sa^nussati regenerating process samvejani^ya ttha^na SUDDEN ENLIGHTENMENT SUKHAVATIVYUHA SUTRA sun~n~ata^nupassana^ tanha^ nissita si^la TEN TITLES OF BUDDHA THREE ENLIGHTENMENTS ti hetu patisandhika UNCONDITIONED DHARMA VAST AND LONG TONGUE vivattana^nupassana^ yatha^santhatik’anga 大乘论(Mahayana sastra) 小乘论(Hinayana sastra) 中道(madhyamapratipad) a^ka^sa^nan~ca^yatana animitta ceto vimutti antara^ parinibba^yi^ bhojane mattan~n~uta^ corporeality and mind death proximate karma dependent origination DVADASHAMUKHA SHASTRA dvi hetuka patisandhi germinating once more mind and corporeality ninefold dispensation nirutti patisambhida^ patipassaddhi paha^na produced corporeality pun~n~a kiriya vatthu questions and answers sota^pannassa anga^ni TEN MERITORIOUS DEEDS THREE CLASSIFICATIONS THREE PERIODS OF TIME transference of merit ubhato bha^ga vimutta vi^thi = citta vi^thi vin~n~a^nan~ca^yatana 梵网经(Brahmajala-sutra) 中论(Madhyamika-sastra) appama^na ceto vimutti bhavanga sota^, citta catu pa^risuddhi si^la citta samuttha^na rúpa doctrine of the Buddha FLOWER ADORNMENT SUTRA FOUR GREAT BODHISATTVA ji^vita navaka kala^pa kamma samuttha^na rúpa resistance perceptions sensitive corporeality SIXTEEN CONTEMPLATIONS substrata of existence THREE UNIVERSAL TRUTHS yatha^kammúpaga n~a^na 长阿含经(Dirghagama-sutra) 楞伽经(Lankavatara-sutra) 缘起(pratitya-samutpada) bhayatupattha^na n~a^na catu dha^tu vavattha^na dasa (tatha^gata ) bala determining the reality FIVE BASIC AFFLICATIONS muccitu kamyata^ n~a^na NIRVANA WITHOUT RESIDUE patinissagga^nupassana^ receptive consciousness retrospective knowledge sabbúpadhi patinissagga SIX STATES OF EXISTENCE VISVABHADRA BODHISATTVA 八正道(aryastangika-marga) 成实论(Satyasiddhi-sastra) 法称(Dharmakirti 约6~7世纪) 佛性(buddhata, buddhatva) 境行果(sthana-carya-phala) 毗尼多流支(Vinitaruci ?~594) 四分律(Dharmagupta-vinaya) 月称(Candrakirti 约7世纪中叶) ANNUTARA-SAMYAK-SAMBODHI attainment concentration clarity of consciousness corporeality perceptions ego idea, ego perception multiformity perceptions pa^na^tipa^ta^ veramani^ paccaya sannissita si^la patibha^na patisambhida^ reflecting contemplation verbal functions of mind 部派佛部(Sectarian Buddhism) 大日经(Mahavairocana-sutra) 寂护(Santiraksita 705~762) 戒日王(Siladitya 约590~647) 十诵律(Sarvastivada-vinaya) 无量寿经(Aparimitayur-sutra) 原始佛教(primitive Buddhism) 杂阿含经(Samyuktagama-sutra) hate rooted consciousness independently enlightened indriyesu gutta dva^rata^ kankha^ vitarana visuddhi pa^timokkha samvara si^la registering consciousness SAMANTABHADRA BODHISATTVA spontaneously born beings support decisive support TEN STAGES OF BODHISATTVA VIMALAKIRTI-NIVDESA SUTRA 佛教文学(Buddhist literature) 摩诃菩提会(Maha Bodhi Society) 增一阿含经(Ekottaragama-sutra) 中阿含经(Madh yamagama-sutra) a^ha^re patikkúla san~n~a^ a^kin~can~n~a ceto vimutti ability to acquire insight analysis of the 4 elements dasa pun~n~a kiriya vatthu functions of consciousness happy courses of existence impersonality of existence khalu paccha^ bhattik’anga MAHA-PRAJNA-PARAMITA-SUTRA mind consciousness element paranimmita vasavatti deva parassa ceto pariya n~a^na TEN VEHICLES OF MEDITATION THREEFOLD BODY OF A BUDDHA uddhamsota akanitthaga^mi^ 发智论(Jnanaprasthana-sastra) 俱舍论(Abhidharmakosa-sastra) 越南佛教(Vietnamese Buddhism) balance of mental faculties karma produced corporeality neighbourhood concentration origination of corporeality PURE LAND OF ULTIMATE BLISS thought thought conception yatha^ bhúta n~a^na dassana 佛教建筑(Buddhist architecture) akusala sa^dha^rana cetasika LAW OF DEPENDENT ORIGINATION NINE STAGES OF LOTUS FLOWERS patisankha^nupassana^ n~a^na seven rebirths at the utmost SIX PERIODS OF DAY AND NIGHT 常乐我净(nitya-sukha-atma-subha) 大般涅槃经(Mahaparinirvana-sutra) 观无量寿经(Amitayurbhavana-sutra) 楞严经(surangama-samadhi-sutra) 菩萨戒本(Bodhisattva-pratimoksa) 乞[口*栗]双提赞Khri-Sron-Lde-bTsan 瑜伽师地论(Yogacara-bhumi-sastra) dittha dhamma vedani^ya kamma EIGHTEEN DIFFERENT CHARACTERS EVIL TIME OF FIVE TURBIDITIES THREE MEDITATIONS OF ONE MIND vuttha^na ga^mini^ vipassana^ 中国佛教美术(Buddhist art in China) ascetic purification practices imperturbable karma formations sabba loke anabhirati san~n~a^ VIPASYANA SUKHAVATIVYUHA SUTRA 维摩经(Vimalakirti-nirdesa-sutra) equilibrium of mental faculties lahuta^ muduta^, kamman~n~ata^ pariyatti patipatti, pativedha SIX DIRECTIONS OF REINCARNATION subha san~n~a^, citta, ditthi sukha san~n~a^, citta, ditthi THREE UNIVERSAL CHARACTERISTICS 大般若经(Mahaprajna-paramita-sutra) 铃木大拙(Suzuki Daisetsu 1870~1966) 妙法莲华经(Saddharmapundarika-sutra) 中国佛教音乐(Buddhist music in China) karmically acquired corporeality patipada^ n~a^nadassana visuddhi 大智度论(Mahaprajna-paramita-sastra) 冢本善隆(Tsukamoto Zenryu 1898~1980) anan~n~a^tan~ n~assa^mi^t’indriya citta ja (citta samuttha^na) rúpa ▲ 收起
南传佛教英文辞典 【505】unconditioned

  the:  asankhata  (q.v.).  -  Contemplation  of  the  u.  (=  animitta);  s.  vipassana^.

南传佛教英文辞典 【506】understanding

  s.  ditthi,  n~a^na,  pan~n~a^,  parin~n~a^.  -  Right  u.,  s.  magga  (1).  sacca  (IV.1).

南传佛教英文辞典 【507】verbal action

  vaci^-kamma;  s.  karma.

南传佛教英文辞典 【508】vipacitan~n~u

  (or  vipan~citan~n~u):  ”one  who  realizes  the  truth  after  explanation.”  Thus  is  called  one  who  realizes  the  truth  only  after  detailed  explanation  of  that  which  already  had  been  said  to  him  in  a  concise  form.  Cf.  ugghatitan~n~u.

南传佛教英文辞典 【509】vivatta kappa

  s.  kappa.

南传佛教英文辞典 【510】water element

  a^po-dha^tu  (s.  dha^tu).

南传佛教英文辞典 【511】weighty karma

  garuka-kamma  (s.  karma).

中国百科全书 【512】阿旃陀石窟(Ajanta)

  古印度佛教艺术遗址。位于马哈拉斯特拉邦境内,背负文底耶山,面临果瓦拉河。始凿于公元前2世纪,一直延续到7世纪中叶。现存30窟(包括一未完成窟)。从东到西长550米,全部开凿在离地面10~30米不等的崖面上。除5窟(即第9、10、19、26、29窟)为供信徒礼拜的支提窟外,余皆为僧房。

  阿旃陀以其壁画艺术著称于世。由于洞窟开凿年代分属三个不同时期,所存16窟壁画亦呈现出三种不同风格。第9、10窟壁画涉及佛教的小乘形式。绘制于公元前后,以本生故事为主。佛教认为,佛陀是已入涅槃、彻底摆脱业报轮回的圣人,是不能再生的,所以多以象征性手法来表现,如法轮、莲花、小白象等。第16、17窟为第二期壁画,约绘制于6世纪左右。以人像和建筑图案的配合为特色,构图富于变化,线条流畅,笔法洗炼,色彩绚丽,内容多为佛教宣传。第1、2窟为第三期壁画,约绘制于7世纪左右。世俗性题材增多,与外来的中国、波斯风格融合混杂,社会生活的各方面都有所表现,如帝王宫廷欢宴、狩猎、朝觐的场面,飞禽走兽、奇花异卉等等,构图活泼,栩栩如生。《波斯使节来朝图》记录了波斯和印度的聘问通好。

  中国高僧玄奘曾在7世纪初朝圣阿旃陀。随着佛教的衰落,这里门庭冷落,逐渐被人忘却,成为狐兔窟穴。直到19世纪初才被重新发现,引起世人瞩目。(罗照辉)

中国百科全书 【513】舍卫城(Sravasti)

  古印度佛教胜地。传为释迦牟尼长年居留说法处。亦译室罗伐、罗伐悉底;意译为闻者、闻物、丰德、好道等。古印度拘萨罗国都城。在今印度北方邦北部,拉普底河南岸。佛教史上著名的祗园精舍所在地。据说拘萨罗国富商给孤独(又名须达多,意为善授)长者用金钱铺地的代价购得波斯匿太子祗陀在舍卫城南的花园,作为释迦牟尼在舍卫国说法、驻留的场所。祗陀太子为这一举动所感动,亦将园中的林木捐献给释迦牟尼,故亦称“祗树给孤独园”。7世纪玄奘来此时,已“都城荒颓”、“伽蓝数百,圮坏良多”。1893年英国考古学家卡家汉在此进行发掘。出土的佛教文物大我收藏于勒克瑙博物馆。(方广  )

中国百科全书 【514】因明(Hetuvidya)

  yinming

  古印度的逻辑学说。因,指推理的根据、理由;明,即知识,智慧。是通过宗、因、喻所组成的三支作法,进行推理、证明的学问。三支中,因是主要部分,故称因明。包括逻辑学和认识论(又称量论)。逻辑学部分,研究逻辑规则和逻辑错误。逻辑规则是宗、因、喻三支及其相互关系的规定,主要有因三相、九句因、合与离等。逻辑错误称为“似宗”、“似因”、“似喻”,或称“过失”,包括宗九过、因十四过、喻十过等。认识论部分研究现量和比量,即直觉知识和推理知识。

  形成及内容  古印度逻辑学说,导源于辩论术。印度各学派之间的辩论,目的是指明对方学说的错误,证明本派学说的正确。在长期辩论中,逐渐形成推理形式。最早起源于古印度正统婆罗门哲学派别关于祭祀的辩论,其中正理派深入研究了逻辑问题,以五支作法为中心,初步归纳出正确推理的基本规则和错误推理的原因、类型。唐人把它包括在“古因明”内。2世纪时,佛教内部对因明采取截然不同的两种态度。大乘中观派(空宗)创始人龙树对正理派的逻辑学说持否定态度。龙树著《回诤论》(有汉译本),总破正理派的“量”与“所量”;又著《广破论》(有藏译本)——破斥正理派十六句义,即今本《正理经》十六句义。其中学清辩一系,虽著书立说多用因明轨式,然无因明专著。仅8世纪寂护著有《摄真实论》,亦仅祖述陈那、法称之说而已。

  小乘说一切有部则对因明持肯定态度。在《大毗婆沙论》中即有佛徒应“能通世俗诸论,所谓记论、因论、王论、诸医方论、工巧论等”。其中因论又作“历明论”,有“辩无碍解以习因明论为加行故”之语。藏传《大毗婆沙论》四评家之一的法救,曾作《论说门论》(书已不存),《青史》列举因明传承时也列有法救之名。4世纪兴起的大乘瑜伽行派(有宗),逐渐吸取并发展了古因明,使之成为驳斥其他派别、宣传教义的重要工具。当时广泛使用了五明之说,亦名“五明处”,即:内明、医方明、因明、声明、工巧明。《大乘庄严经论》卷五有“菩萨习五明,总为求种智”和“学因明为伏外执”等语。其他重要典籍如《瑜伽师地论》、《显扬圣教论》、《集论》、《杂集论》等在讲因明时,都讲到“七因明”,即论体性、论处所、论所依、论庄严、论堕负、论出离、论多所作法。关于因明的核心问题,辩论中所用的推理形式,都在“论所依”项下进行阐述。在四部书中前两书与后两书在分类上和各个术语的定义上也略有不同。相传世亲曾著有《论轨》、《论式》、《论心》三书,惜俱不存。所著《如实论》(梁真谛译),原书共二千颂,今汉译本仅万余字,显非全书。但在《道理难品》有世亲关于因三相说:“我立因三种相,是根本法,同类所摄,异类相离,是故立因成就不动。”而无著在《顺中论》里也引述了耆那教人之因三相说。这一时期的佛家逻辑学说,唐人也称为古因明。5~6世纪时,陈那对因明作重大改革。其因明著作,义净在《南海寄归内法传》中说有八论,即《观三世论》(有藏译本)、《观总相论》(有汉译残本)《观境论》(即《观所缘缘论》,有真谛、玄奘二汉译及藏译本)、《因门论》(今佚)、《似因门论》(今佚),《理门论》(有玄奘汉译本)、《取事施设论》(有汉译残本)、《集量论》(有两种藏译本)。此外藏文大藏经中尚有寂护与法光共译的陈那《因轮论》,其内容即“九句因”,九句因在《集量论》、《正理门论》也都详细讲述过,是陈那“新因明”的重要组成部分。九句因用排列法,枚举了因与同品、异品九种可能的关系,穷尽了因与同、异二品共同组合的一切可能。它确定第二、第八为正因,第四、第六为相违似因,余五为不定似因。这不仅为正因、似因从形式上下了定义,也明确了同、有、异、无必需合为一体,才有确立因与宗中能别的不相离性。由九句因演为因三相,进而改五支作法为三支作法。古因明五支作法为宗、因、喻、合、结。其推论性质,为类比推理。陈那三支推论性质为演绎推理,也就是说,具备三相即能显示其推论的正确,并保证其逻辑推理之必然性,这是陈那在印度逻辑史上的重大贡献,因此称为新因明。印度学者称陈那为中世逻辑之祖,也是由于他的这一贡献。

  发展  7世纪时的法称,承袭陈那《集量论》的精义,又加以改革,一般认为有重大发展。所著量论书籍,共有七种:1、《量评释论》。系评释陈那《集量论》之书,为其最初最主要的著作。分为成量、现量、为自比量、为他比量四品,偈颂体,共一千四百余颂。2、《量决择论》。分为现量、为自比量、为他比量三品。有颂有长行。颂文半数采自《量评释论》。3、《正理滴论》。分品同《量决择论》,只有长行,为初学入门书。4、《因论一滴论》。5、《观相属论》。6、《论议正理论》。7、《成他相续论》。西藏学者总称法称因明七论。法称晚年又为《量评释论·为自比量品》作注释。这八部书全都是藏译本,无汉译本。其中《量评释论》和《正理滴论》有梵文原本。法称在讲比量时,沿用陈那的因三相说而有所修正和补充。他在《量评释论·为自比量品》的第一颂为“正因”下定义时,提出“宗法,彼分遍,正因。此三种”。“宗法”指因为宗中有法之法。即第一相遍是宗法性。“彼分遍”,彼,指宗,彼分,即宗中一分“能别”。遍字用的受动分词,彼分的“分”字用的是具格,应该理解为“因”为“所遍”,“能别”为“能遍”。陈那因三相后二相所确立的“能别”与“因”之间的“不相离性”,这一由遮诠所表示的抽象关系,法称把它修正为用表诠所表示的抽象关系,法称把它修正为用表诠所显示的“能遍”与“所遍”的比较具体的关系。这一修正,不仅对后来佛家因明而且对正理论、胜论等派都发生过深远影响。也就在同一颂的同一行中,法称又提出正因应分为自性、果、不可得三种。这就和陈那摒弃《瑜伽》、《集论》等佛家内部古因明关于因的分类,以及破斥正理论、数论等派之分因为“有前”、“有余”、“平等”三类的精神有明显不同。至于法称三支比量之具体排列,喻(存体废依)为第一;因为第二;宗为第三;并称宗言可省,则又与陈那三支比量不仅形式上,而且在精神上都不相同。法称使三支论式与形式逻辑的三段论法在形式上更为接近。

  法称和陈那在哲学的一个基本问题上的根本不同点表现在现量、特别是在五根现量学说上。在他们对现量所下的定义,结合他们所讲能量、所量、量果的文字看,陈那以唯识义为主,主张识外无境,故以识中相分为所量,见分为能量,自证为量果。法称以经部义为主,主张境在识外。故以外境为所量,以识中所带境相为能量,以自证为量果。因明传入中国,汉族地区仅传陈那学说,藏族地区主要传法称学说。汉、藏所传因明学说之所以不同,实导源于陈那、法称因明学说之相异。

  在印度传承法称量论之学的有三派:1、由天主慧传释迦慧,再传律天。据多罗那他《印度佛教史》记述:法称造《量评释论》,命其弟子天主慧作注释,释成,不当其意,命毁而重作者再。至第三稿成,法称已知其不能更深入一步,认为仅可解释文字而已,遂留传下来。后人即称天主慧、释迦慧、律天这一派的疏释为释文派。2、由法上传阿难陀,继传旺估班底达,又传释迦吉祥贤,再传萨班。法上曾为法称《量决择论》、《正理滴论》作详注,并对若干重要因明理论问题写有专著。后人谓其能阐述法称深义,因称之为阐义派。3、由慧生护传日护,继传亚玛日,再传智吉祥友。慧生护曾为法称《量评释论》(除“为自比量品”)作释,名《量评释论庄严疏》,对“成量”、“现量”二品释文特详,又多发挥已见,认为《量评释论》不仅是一部因明著作,也是一部佛家哲学的著作。日护曾为《量评释论庄严疏》作注;亚玛日更作详注。均自谓得慧生护本意,后被称为庄严派。上述三派对法称的量论注疏,均有藏译本,保存于丹珠尔中。以上是因明在印度的大体轮廓。

  汉地因明  中国汉族地区的因明,翻译讲授较早,而以弘传陈那的新因明为主。早在北魏延兴四年(474),即译出一部因明专著《方便心论》(宋以后刻本标为龙树著,实是小乘学人所作)。梁大宝元年(550),真谛又译出世亲《如实论》一卷,虽不是完本,但从中可看到与陈那《正理门论》的某些关系。玄奘是汉地因明的主要翻译、讲授者。他在留学印度时,曾于迦湿弥罗从僧称习《因明论》(当即《入正理论》),在至那仆底从调伏光学《理门论》。后又于那烂陀寺从戒贤学《因明论》、《集量论》各两遍。还在南(  )萨罗国专学《集量论》,在低罗择迦寺及杖林山居士胜军等处咨询有关因明的疑难问题。回国前曾修正胜军所立“大乘是佛所说量”,又在戒日王为他在曲女城召开的无遮大会上立“唯识比量”(后世称“真唯识量”)。回国时还带回因明著述36部(贝叶写本)。但回国后只译出《因明正理门论》和《因明入正理论》,没有翻译他一再学习、质疑的《集量论》,这与他重视弘扬无著、世亲、护法等的法相唯识之学固然有关,更和他自己对因明观点有密切关系。因唯识家的主要论书如《瑜伽师地论》、《显扬圣教论》、《集论》、《杂集论》等,所说学习因明论的目的,与陈那早期所作《正理门论》和商羯罗主的《入正理论》基本相同。两论的内容,也均以立破轨式为主。而世亲、陈那以后的相宗诸家著述,又多采用因明论式以证成其说。故玄奘在译《瑜伽师地论》的同时,即译出《入正理论》,稍后又译《正理门论》。此两论译出后,陈那的新因明理论即盛传一时,时人欣闻新学,锐意钻研,有“译寮僧伍,竞造文疏”之盛。自贞观二十一年(647)至开元年间,为《入正理论》所作疏记有23~24部,为《正理门论》所作疏记有16~17部。其书现存者仅有神仄、净眼的《正理门论疏》两部(俱残),文轨《入正理论疏》残本1部。只有窥基所著《因明入正理论疏》及其弟子慧沼再传弟子智周等疏释基疏之作,由智周弟子日本神昉传至日本奈良,得以随相宗流传至今。玄奘所传因明,在中国到开元年间与法相唯识之学同归衰微。会昌禁佛,晚唐五代,兵戈扰攘,因明疏记,世解讲习,其书亦隐晦不传。直至清末,窥基的《因明入正理论疏》以及慧沼、智周等人阐述捍卫基疏之作,始由日本返传中国,刻版流通;僧俗学人争相传习,玄奘所传因明之学乃得再显于世。迄今已有若干专著和大量论文刊行。

  在窥基的《因明入正理论疏》里,保存了不少玄奘的口义。近代学人认为,其主要内容有四宗、六因、因同异品、能力绮互、四相违分合等。今日所见11世纪耆那教人师子贤所著《入正理论注疏》,尚多有与窥基的《因明入正理论疏》相同处。这都是陈那及其后学的印度因明学说。因此,因明学说在汉族地区,只是由玄奘及其弟子辈,保存了这一时期的珍贵的重要史料。在因明理论本身,由于玄奘博学精湛,所传陈那之学,实为精当。其所译《入正理论》,13世纪中曾由汉僧译为藏文,稍后经合尊·法宝(即南宋恭帝赵(  ))校订,遂流传于藏族地区。

  藏传因明  在翻译陈那、法称等人的著作方面,时间比汉地晚,但数量之多,注释之完备,讲传著述之盛,远远超过汉地。盖因藏地前弘期、后弘期大量译经,正值印度佛家盛传法称量论之时。而藏族地区显教各派,受印土影响也都把量论与中观、瑜伽并列,将陈那、法称与龙树、提婆、无著、世亲等量齐观,称为“阎浮六严”。千余年来,因明在藏地传译、讲说、著述,乃至在学经时应用因明论式以辩明经义,一直相沿不衰。

  当8~9世纪时,自赤松德赞建桑耶寺至热巴巾去世的数十年间,翻译因明论典之论师有吉祥积、智军、空护、法光等四人。先后译出法称著作有《正理滴论》、《因论一滴论》、《观相属论》及《观相属释》、《成他相续论》等5部;译出律天著《正理滴广注》、《因滴广注》、《观相续论疏》、《成他相续疏》、《观所缘论疏》等五部。又译出善护(法上之师)著《成一切智论》、《成外境论》;法上著《正理滴论广注》;胜友,莲花戒有关《正理滴论》的著作各一部。以上15部皆法称偏重因明论式之书及其注释。另有寂护与法光译出陈那《因轮论》(内容讲“九句因”,与《集量论》、《理门论》文字略同,北京版并附九句因图)1部。此16部著作,现均存丹珠尔量论部(见于《丹噶目录》者略多于此数)。当时有无讲授传承著述,因史册未见明文,难以窥知,就所译诸书而论,法称原著以偏重逻辑论式之《正理滴论》、《因论一滴论》为主,注释书以律天著述为多,可以推知当时藏地佛教翻译者,得在因明论式,主要接受了法称弟子辈释文派之说。

  约11世纪,有宝贤和阿底峡两人之弟子玛善慧译出《量评释颂》及其《为自比量品自注》;天主慧《量评释论》其他三品注;释迦慧《量评释注疏》以及法称《论诡计正理论》等书。并开始按照释文派之说为徒众讲解传授。又有玛善慧弟子辈穹卜扎塞,将阿里玛善慧所讲因明学说传播于卫藏,曾在今布达拉宫所在地红山广授学徒,著有几部因明著述。后世藏人称其所传习之量论为“旧量论”,后有翱大译师名罗丹喜饶,曾赴迦湿弥罗留学17年,从班智达利他贤、吉庆王萨加那等人学因明。曾在迦湿弥罗与利他贤共译法称《量决择论》及法上《量决择论详疏》,与吉庆王共译智生护《量释庄严注》等重要因明论书七八种。返藏后,受阿里王拉内的请求和资助,于聂巴寺译出亚玛里著《量释庄严注疏》,并校订、修改前人所译量论诸书。后任桑浦寺堪布,讲经授徒,听众前后达2300人。其助手中能讲《量释庄严注》和《量决定论疏》的有55人,能阐述《量决择论》义理的有280人。桑浦寺遂有西藏地区传授因明的中心,学者辈出,不少人著有《量决择论》注疏传世。罗丹喜饶四传弟子法狮子任桑浦寺第六任堪布18年,因明的讲解、传授盛极一时(萨迦三祖称幢曾从法狮子学因明),史称其上首弟子有精进狮子等八大狮子。法狮子著有《量决择论广注》,并独运匠心,为初学因明者造《量论摄义祛蔽颂》及自释,和另一部《量论摄义》(长行本)。其书条举量论义类一十八事,依经部义加以解说,使初学僧人习此易于通达法称原著。其书为后人所著《都扎》(解释量论若干重要义门的教本)、《达日》(从逻辑方面简述因明学说的教本)、《洛日》(从认识方面简述因明学说的教本)及其他种种因明入门书开创了范例。后人著书,或直接承用法狮子书之体例,增义类为二十一或二十八;或师其意而自著新书,均用经部义阐述法称的量论。时西藏各派显教学僧之习因明者,多来桑浦寺学习,此后二三百年仍持续不衰。其所传量论以法称《量决择论》为主,讲传则以法上为首的阐义派学说为主。此外,11世纪末12世纪初,有夏玛狮子王曾从当时四位名译师学习梵文,并和印人持世护共译陈那《集量论》。约在同时,译师信慧和印人金铠也共同译出《集量论》和《集量论颂》。还有年时不详的译师金刚幢和印人吉祥安慧共译《集量论广博无垢疏》(书中已用法称义)。但藏史不详其讲授传承情况,后人研习此疏也很少。《集量论》分为现量、为自比量、为他比量、喻、遮诠、过类等六品。藏人尊称此论为经。但传习不广,注疏亦甚少。今所习见者为贾曹杰《集量论注》一书,用的是狮子王译本(藏地学习《集量论》多用狮子王译本)。约12世纪末,萨迦称幢与迦湿弥罗一切智吉祥护共译梵本《入正理论》为藏文,而误认为是陈那之《正理门论》。

  13世纪早期,西藏又出现了传授因明的另一中心——萨迦寺。萨班·贡噶坚赞(萨迦四祖)幼从伯父称幢(萨迦三祖)学法受沙弥戒。23岁(1204)起从那烂陀寺座主大班智达释迦吉祥贤及其弟子辈学习法称所著《量评释论》等七部因明论及其他佛教经论,兼学声明、医方明、工巧明及诗词、韵律、修词、歌舞、星算等小五明,皆能精通,人称班智达。25岁从释迦师利受具足戒。又和释迦师利师徒共依中印传本重新修改罗丹喜饶修订过的《量评释论》等书中散见各处要义并参酌各家注疏而著《正理藏论颂》及自释《正理藏论》,颇为时人及后世重视,流传广远(明代曾在北京刻印此书)。书分观境品、观慧品、观总别品、观成遮品、观所诠能诠品、观相属品、观相违品、观相品、观现量品、观为自比量品、观为他比量品等十一品。全书可分为两大部分,第一部分包括前七品,主要讲认识论,第二部分包括后四品,专讲能作是非正误标准的正智,即所谓“量”。其中后三品为陈那、法称所讲量论的主体。此书为萨班重新组织形成自已量论体系之书,能使学者更深入了解法称精意。萨班之学,由其弟子3人分别在萨迦寺东、西、前三院讲授。传萨班因明之学的以西院明狮子为最有名。其所著《量评释论详注》,依法上义兼用庄严堪布(指著《量评释论庄严疏》之智生护)注义。故其讲授传承属阐义派兼庄严派。藏传佛教其他教派,如噶举派以传密法为主,藏文史籍未见其有因明传承历史。唯噶玛噶举黑帽系第七世活佛法称海,不依印藏注疏,直读法称原著,著有《正理海》一书,为时人所称。又主巴噶举白莲亦有因明著作。此外,在11~12世纪,还有其他译师翻译因明著作,有的也有讲授传承,但都远不及桑浦、萨迦两系之兴盛且流传久远。

  15世纪初,格鲁派兴起。创始人宗喀巴曾学习桑浦、萨迦两派的因明讲授传承,并穷究陈那、法称所在藏译著作及法称《量评释论》的八种印度人注解的藏译本,提出了他自己和前人不同的见解。认为量论不仅是推理辩论之学,也是佛家哲学一个独立的体系,其中包括有从凡夫到成佛的一套教理。但他本人只写了一本仅23页的小书《七部量论入门启蒙》,没有其他更重要因明著作。其著名弟子贾曹杰(本名盛宝)、克主杰(本名善祥贤)、僧成(今通称第一世达赖)等有重要因明著述。

  贾曹杰学兼显密,尤精因明。著有《集量论释》,为藏人因明巨著之一。于法称著作,有《量评释论颂详注》,又著《量释论摄义》、《量决定论详注》、《正理滴注》,并注《观相属论》、《相违相属释》。还有《现量品(量释论)随闻录》和《量论随闻录》(二书均系记录其师宗喀巴讲义)。又著有《量论道要指津》、《正理藏论释善说心要》等。所作注疏,以释义为主,不拘泥于解说文字,科判详密,明义精审,文字简畅易解。克主杰因明著作有《七部量论庄严祛惑论》(总论法称七部因明之书)和《量释论详解正理海》(详释《量评释论》之书)。释文以天主慧、释迦慧两人注疏为主要依据,重于解释文字。另有《量评释论现量品疏》(记其师宗喀巴讲义)和《量论道要指津》(释量论中所含之解脱道),为研究格鲁派量论新义之要籍。僧成著有《量评释论释》及《量评释论正理庄严》(依《量评释论》通论因明要义之书)。自宗喀巴师徒建甘丹、哲蚌、色拉、扎什伦布四大寺后,格鲁派寺院成为卫藏佛教学术重心。寺中学制规定《量评释论》为显教学僧必读的五部重要论典之一(其他四部为《现观庄严论》、《入中论》、《俱舍论》、《戒经》)。藏传其他教派如萨迦、噶举、宁玛等派此后亦逐渐建立学制,规定僧人必学之书13部,《量评释论》亦均为其中之一。格鲁派注释《量评释论》者甚多,其中甘丹寺有墀巴坚慧、墀巴愿吉祥等;哲蚌寺有妙音善法满、大班底达福称、法生、妙音笑金刚语自在精进等;色拉寺有结尊法幢等;扎什伦布寺有罗卓雷桑、善慧法幢(四世班禅)等。17世纪中叶,格鲁派领袖掌握藏区政教大权,格鲁派因明学说,也借政教势力广为传播,并流传于青海及漠南北蒙古,300余年来,学者辈出,著述繁多。此期著述,有为法称量论、特别是《量评释论》作注疏的,亦有不少因明专题论述。仅据拉卜楞寺藏书目录因明类所著录者,就达120~130种。数量最多的为初学入门书及寺院所用教本,如《都扎》、《洛日》、《达日》等。在各大寺各札仓均各有一套由浅入深的因明教科书,内容远承法狮子《量论摄义》遗义而有所发展。学理方面虽不出陈那、法称及西藏古德著述范围,实践上已逐渐形成西藏特有的一套辩论方式,在藏蒙地区学僧学习经典的口头辩论中和学者著述的辩论文字中,都得到广泛的运用。也因为因明在藏蒙寺院中,在学经辩论中,在考取格西的辩论中,都必须运用精熟的一门学问,所以因明之讲传著述一直不衰;在国内外独具特色,也颇为国际学人所重视。(王森)

南传佛教英文辞典 【515】a^ka^sa dha^tu

”space  element”;  see  above  and  dha^tu.

南传佛教英文辞典 【516】abhibha^yatana

  he  8  ”stages  of  mastery”,  ...
the  8  ”stages  of  mastery”,  are  powers  to  be  obtained  by  means  of  the  kasina-exercises  (s.  kasina).  In  the  Com.  to  M.77,  where  a^yatana  is  explained  by  ”means”  (ka^rana)  it  is  said:  "The  abhibha^yatana  through  their  counteracting  may  master  (suppress)  the  adverse  states,  and  by  means  of  higher  knowledge  they  may  master  the  objects  of  mind."  They  are  means  for  transcending  the  sensuous  sphere.
The  stereotype  text  often  met  with  in  the  Suttas  (e.g.  D.11,  D.33;  M.77;  A.VIII.65;  A.X.29)  is  as  follows:
(1)  "Perceiving  (blue...,  red...,  yellow...,  white)  forms  on  one”s  own  body,  one  sees  forms  externally  small  ones,  beautiful  or  ugly;  and  in  mastering  these  one  understands:  ”I  know,  I  understand.”  This  is  the  first  stage  of  mastery.
(2)  "Perceiving  forms  on  one”s  own  body,  one  sees  forms  externally,  large  ones  ....  This  is  the  second  stage  of  mastery.
(3)  "Not  perceiving  forms  on  one”s  own  body,  one  sees  forms  externally,  small  ones  ....  This  is  the  third  stage  of  mastery.
(4)  "Not  perceiving  forms  on  one”s  own  body,  one  sees  forms  externally,  large  ones  ....  This  is  the  fourth  stage  of  mastery.
(5)  "Not  perceiving  forms  on  one”s  own  body,  one  sees  forms  externally,  blue  forms,  forms  of  blue  colour,  blue  appearance,  blue  lustre,  and  mastering  these  one  understands:  ”I  know,  I  understand.  This  is  the  fifth  stage  of  mastery."
(6-8)  The  same  is  repeated  with  yellow,  red  and  white  forms.
As  preparatory  kasina-object  for  the  1st  and  2nd  exercise  one  should  choose  on  one”s  own  body  a  small  or  a  large  spot,  beautiful  or  ugly,  and  thereon  one  should  concentrate  one”s  full  undivided  attention,  so  that  this  object  after  a  while  reappears  as  mental  reflex  or  image  (nimitta,  q.v.)  and,  as  it  were,  as  something  external.  Such  an  exercise,  though  appearing  quite  mechanical,  if  properly  carried  out  will  bring  about  a  high  degree  of  mental  concentration  and  entrance  into  the  4  absorptions  (jha^na,  q.v.).  In  the  3rd  and  4th  exercises  the  monk  by  an  external  kasina-object  gains  the  mental  reflexes  and  absorptions.  As  objects  of  the  remaining  exercises,  perfectly  clear  and  radiant  colours  should  be  chosen,  flowers,  cloth,  etc.
A  kasina-object  of  small  size  is  said  to  be  suitable  for  a  mentally  unsteady  nature,  one  of  a  large  size  for  a  dull  nature,  a  beautiful  object  for  an  angry  nature,  an  ugly  one  for  a  lustful  nature.
In  Vis.M.  V  it  is  said:  "By  means  of  the  earth-kasina  one  succeeds  in  reaching  the  stage  of  mastery  with  regard  to  small  and  large  objects  ....  By  means  of  the  blue-kasina  one  succeeds  in  causing  blue  forms  to  appear,  in  producing  darkness,  in  reaching  the  stage  of  mastery  with  regard  to  beautiful  and  ugly  colours,  in  reaching  ”deliverance  through  the  beautiful”,  etc."  (cf.  vimokkha  II,  3).  The  same  is  also  said  with  regard  to  the  other  colour  kasinas.

南传佛教英文辞典 【517】ahetuka ditthi

”view  of  uncausedness”  (of  existence);  s.  ditthi.

南传佛教英文辞典 【518】akiriya ditthi

  view  of  the  inefficacy  of  action”;  s.  ditthi.

南传佛教英文辞典 【519】altruistic joy

  mudita^,  is  one  of  the  4  sublime  abodes  (brahmaviha^ra,  q.v.).

英汉对照词典 【520】AMITABHA SUTRA

Amitabha  Sutra  ==  阿弥陀经

One  of  the  main  sutra  in  Pure  Land  Sect.  It  is  said  to  be  the  only  sutra  that  Shakyamuni  preached  without  being  asked.  For  the  sake  of  facilitating  the  living  beings  to  practice  and  cultivate  the  Buddha  way.  Shakyamuni  revealed  and  taught  us  of  he  simplest  ways  for  liberation  and  enlightenment  --  reciting  Amitabha  Buddha”s  name.  By  reciting  the  name,  one  can  opt  to  be  born  in  the  Pure  Land  of  Ultimate  Bliss.  It  is  one  of  the  most  popular  sutra  recited  by  the  Buddhists  in  China.

南传佛教英文辞典 【521】asan~n~a satta

  The  ”unconscious  beings”,  are  a  class  of  heavenly  beings  in  the  fine-material  world;  s.  deva  (II)."There  are,  o  monks,  heavenly  beings  known  as  the  unconscious  ones.  As  soon,  however,  as  in  those  beings  consciousness  arises,  those  beings  will  vanish  from  that  world.  Now,  o  monks,  it  may  happen  that  one  of  those  beings  after  vanishing  from  that  world,  may  reappear  in  this  world...."  (D.  24).  Further  details,  s.  Kath.,  Yam.  (Guide,  pp.  68,  79,  96  ff.).

南传佛教英文辞典 【522】atta kilamatha

”self-mortification”,  is  one  of  the  two  extremes  to  be  avoided,  the  other  extreme  being  addiction  to  sensual  pleasures  (ka^ma-sukha),  whilst  the  Noble  8-fold  Path  constitutes  the  Middle  Path  (majjhima-patipada^,  q.v.).  See  the  Buddha”s  first  sermon,  "The  Establishment  of  the  Realm  of  Dhamma"  (Dhamma-cakkappavattana-Sutta).

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