s. bha^va.
”purification”, purity. The ”7 stages of purification” (satta-visuddhi) form the substructure of Upatissa”s Vimutti-Magga (The Path To Freedom), preserved only in Chinese, as well as of Buddhaghosa”s monumental work, Visuddhi-Magga (The Path of Purification), based on the former work.
The only place in the Canon where these 7 kinds of purification are mentioned is M. 24, "The Simile of the Stage-coach" (s.”Path”, §64), wherein their purpose and goal are illustrated. There it is said that the real and ultimate goal does not consist in purification of morality, or of mind, or of view, etc., but in total deliverance and extinction. Now, just as one mounts the first coach and travels to the second coach, then mounts the second coach and travels with it to the third coach, etc., in exactly the same way the goal of (I) the purification of morality (sila-visuddhi) is (II) the purification of mind (citta-visuddhi); its goal: (III) the purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi); its goal: (IV) the purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^vitarana-visuddhi); its goal: (V) the purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); its goal: (VI) the purification by knowledge and vision of the path-progress (patipada^-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); its goal: (VII) the purification of knowledge and vision (n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); but the goal of this purification is deliverance freed from all clinging.
(I) "Purification of morality (si^la-visuddhi) consists of the 4-fold purity of morality (catu-pa^risuddhi-si^la), namely: restraint with regard to the Disciplinary Code (pa^timokkhasamvara-si^la), sense-restraint (indriysamvara-si^la), purity of livelihood (a^ji^vapa^risuddhi-si^la), morality with regard to the 4 requisites (paccaya-sannissita-si^la)" (Vis.M. XVIII). On these 4 terms, s. si^la. - In the case of a layman, it entails the observance of whatever moral rules (5 or more) he has taken upon himself.
(II) "Purification of mind (citta-visuddhi) is a name for the 8 attainments (= absorptions: jha^na, q.v.), as well as for neighbourhood-concentration (upaca^ra-sama^dhi; s. sama^dhi)." (ib.).
(III) "By purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi) is meant the understanding, according to reality, of mind and corporeality (na^marúpa, q.v.)... which is founded on undeludedness (wisdom) as base, and which in manifold ways determines mind and corporeality after overcoming all belief in a persollality (atta^: self, ego.)." (ib.).
(IV) "By purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^-vitarana-visuddhi) is meant the understanding which, by grasping the conditions of this mind and corporeality, has escaped from all doubt with regard to the 3 times (past, present, future)." (ib. XIX)
(V) "By purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is meant that understanding which knows the right path from the wrong path: ”This is the right path, that the wrong path.”" (ib. XX)
In order to attain this 5th stage of purification, one at first should develop methodical insight (naya-vipassana^), i.e. through contemplation of the 5 groups of existence (khandha, q.v.). For whosoever does not yet possess a perfectly developed insight, to him such phenomena as effulgence of light, etc. (see below), arising during insight, may become impediments in the 3 kinds of full understanding here considered (s. parin~n~a^).
”As soon as the manifold ways and characteristics of the 4 Truths (sacca) and the dependent origination (paticcasamuppa^da) have become clear to the meditating disciple, he says to himself: Thus do these things never before arisen arise, and having arisen they disappear again. Thus do the formations of existence ever and again arise as something quite new. But not only are they something new, they are moreover also of limited duration, like a dew-drop at sunrise, like a bubble, like a line drawn with a stick in the water, like a mustard seed placed on the point of an arrow, or like a flash of lightning. Also as something unsubstantial and empty do they appear, as jugglery, as a mirage .... Merely something subject to vanishing arises, and having arisen disappears again.”"
During such insight practice, however, may arise the 10 imperfections (or defilements) of insight (vipassanúpakkilesa): effulgence of light (obha^sa), knowledge (n~a^na), rapture (pi^ti), tranquillity (passaddhi), happiness (sukha), determination (adhimokkha), energy (paggaha), awareness (upattha^na), delight (nikanti). - See Vis.M. XX, 105f. (App.).
Excepting the last one, ”delight”, they are not imperfections or defilements in themselves, but may become a basis for them through the arising of pride or delight or by a wrong conclusion that one of the holy paths has been attained. He, however, who is watchful and experienced in insight practice, will know that these states of mind do not indicate attainment of the true path, but are only symptoms or concomitants of insight meditation.
"Thus far the meditating disciple has determined 3 of the truths, namely while determining the corporeal and mental phenomena he has, through purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of suffering”. While grasping the conditions he has, through purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^-vitarana-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of the origin of suffering”. While determining the right path, he has, through purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of the path” (leading to the extinction of suffering)."
(VI) Purification by knowledge and vision of the path-progress (patipada^-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is the insight perfected in 8 kinds of knowledge, together with the 9th knowledge, the ”knowledge adapting itself to truth”.
By the 8 kinds of knowledge are here meant the following, which are freed from defilements, follow the right process, and are considered as insight, namely:
1. knowledge consisting in contemplation of rise and fall (udayabbaya^nupassana^-n~a^na),
2. in contemplation of dissolution (bhanga^nupassana^-n~a^na),
3. in awareness of terror (or the fearful) (bhayatúpattha^na^-n~a^na),
4. in contemplation of misery (a^di^nava^nupassana^-n~a^na),
5. in contemplation of aversion (nibbida^nupassana^-n~a^na),
6. in the desire for deliverance (muccitu-kamyata^-n~a^na),
7. in reflecting contemplation (patisankha^nupassana^-n~a^na),
8. in equanimity regarding all formations of existence (sankha^rupekkha^-n~a^na) - which is followed by
9. in adaptation to truth (sacca^nulomika-n~a^na).
(1) consists in the meditative observation of the 3 characteristics of existence (impermanence, suffering, no self) in one”s own bodily and mental processes. As long as the mind is still disturbed by the 10 imperfections (s. V), the 3 characteristics will not become fully clear in their true nature. Only when the mind is free from these imperfections can the characteristics be observed clearly.
(2) When through such repeated practice, knowledge and mindfulness have grown keen and the bodily and mental formations become apparent quickly, at that stage the phase of dissolution of these formations will become prominent.
"Consciousness with (e.g.) materiality as its object arises and dissolves. Having reflected on that object, he contemplates the dissolution of (reflecting) consciousness." (Pts.M. I, 57, quoted in Vis.M. XXI, 11).
The 8 blessings of this knowledge are: abandoning the belief in eternal existence (bhava-ditthi), giving up attachment to life, constant right application (of mind to meditative endeavour), a purified livelihood, overcoming of anxiety, absence of fear, acquisition of forbearance and gentleness, conquest of discontent and sensual delight (Vis.M. XXI, 28).
(3) Knowledge consisting in awareness of terror (or fearfulness) is the seeing of terror in the conditions as well as the continuity of existence. For whoso considers the formations as impermanent, to him the conditions of existence (i.e. the karma-formations producing ever new existence) appear as terror, as driving towards death. Whoso considers the formations as misery, to him the continuity of existence appears as terror, as something oppressive. Whoso considers the formations as impersonal, to him the karmaformations, as well as the continuity of existence, appear as terror, as an empty village, as a mirage, etc.
(4) Contemplation of misery (or danger) is another aspect of the awareness of terror: "The origin (of existence) is terror ... continuance of existence is terror ... arising is suffering”, such understanding in the awareness of terror is the knowledge of misery.”Non-arising is bliss”, this is knowledge of the peaceful state (Pts.M. I, 59); that is, the no-more-arising is safety, is happiness, is Nibba^na.
(5) Contemplation of aversion means: aversion for all formations as terror, therefore its name ”awareness of terror” has come into use. Because it has made known the misery of all these formations, therefore it has received the name of ”contemplation of misery” (a^di^nava^nupassana^). Because it has arisen through aversion for those formations, therefore it is known as ”contemplation of aversion” (nibbida^nupassana^).
(6) Knowledge consisting in the desire for deliverance means: the desire for freedom and escape from all formations of existence.. For feeling aversion for all formations, becoming weary of them, finding no more delight in them, the mind does not cling to a single one of all these formations.
(7) Reflecting contemplation is the repeated meditative discernment of the formations of existence, attributing to them the 3 characteristics of existence, with the desire to find deliverance from all forms of existence.
(8) Equanimity regarding all formations: "When the meditator (through reflecting contemplation) has discerned the formations by applying the 3 characteristics to them and sees them as void, he abandons both terror and delight, and becomes indifferent and equanimous with regard to all formations; he neither takes them as I nor as ”mine”; he is like a man who has divorced his wife" (Vis.M. XXI, 61).
Now, while continuing to contemplate the 3 characteristics of existence and perceiving the tranquil lot of Nibba^na as the peace, this equanimity-knowledge becomes the triple gateway to liberation. As it is said (Pts.M. II, p. 48):
"Three gateways to liberation (vimokkha-mukha; s. vimokkha I) lead to escape from the world, namely: that the mind is contemplating all formations as limited, and is rushing forward to the conditionless element (animitta-dha^tu); that the mind is stirred with regard to all formations of existence, and is rushing forward to the desireless element (appanihita-dha^tu); that the mind sees all things as something foreign, and is rushing forward to the void element (sun~n~ata^-dha^tu)."
At this stage, and through the triple gateway, the diversification of path attainment takes place, according to the 7 kinds of noble persons (ariya-puggala, q.v.); on this see Vis.M. XXI, 74ff.
The 6th, 7th and 8th knowledges, according to Vis.M. XXI, form really only one single knowledge in its first, middle and final stages of development. This knowledge is also known as the ”insight leading to path ascent” (vuttha^na-ga^mini^-vipassana^, q.v.).
(9) Adaptation to truth (or conformity with truth) is called that knowledge which, while contemplating impermanency, etc. adapts itself to the preceding 8 kinds of insight-knowledge, as well as to the immediately following supermundane path and to the 37 elements pertaining to enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya-dhamma, q.v.). It is identical with adaptation-knowledge (anuloman~a^na).
"Whosoever has cultivated, developed, and frequently practised ”equanimity regarding all formations” in him arises very strong faith known as determination (adhimokkha-saddha^) and his energy is better exerted, his mindfulness better established, his mind better concentrated, and a still stronger ”equanimity regarding the formations” arises.”Now the path will reveal itself”, thus thinking, the meditator contemplates with his equanimity-knowledge all formations as impermanent, etc., and thereafter that knowledge sinks into the subconscious stream of existence (s. bhavanga-sota^). Immediately afterwards there arises advertence at the mind-door (s. vin~n~a^na-kicca). And just like equanimity-knowledge, the adaptation-knowledge, too, takes as its object the formations, regarding them as something impermanent, miserable and impersonal. Thereupon, while continuing the uninterrupted continuity of consciousness (citta-santati), there arises the 1st impulsive moment (javana, q.v.), called ”preparation” (parikamma), taking the same formations as object. Immediately thereafter, with the same formations as object, there arises the 2nd impulsive moment, known as ”access” (upaca^ra). And again immediately after that, there arises the impulsive moment called ”adaptation” (anuloma)."
(VII) Purification of knowledge and vision (n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is the knowledge associated with any of the 4 kinds of supermundane path-consciousness (s. ariyapuggala).
"Immediately upon this adaptation-knowledge there arises the ”maturity-knowlege” (gotrabhú-n~a^na; s. gotrabhú) taking as object the Unconditioned, the standstill of existence, the absence of becoming, cessation, Nibba^na, while at the same time transcending the rank (gotta = gotra: lineage), designation and plane of the worldling (puthujjana, q.v.), and entering the rank, designation and plane of the Noble Ones (ariya), being the first turning towards Nibba^na as object, the first thinking of it, the first concentration on it, and the condition for the path ... forming the culmination of insight, and never as such coming back again.
””As the immediate continuation following upon that maturity knowledge (gotrabhú-n~a^na), there arises the first path-consciousness (Stream-entrance) forever destroying the first 3 of the 10 fetters of existence (samyojana, q.v.), and closing the entrance to the lower worlds. Immediately after this path-knowledge, there arise, as its result, 2 or 3 path-produced states of consciousness, the fruitional consciousness (phala-citta). Immediately after the sinking of this consciousness into the subconscious stream of existence, the retrospective knowledge (paccavekkhana-n~a^na, q.v.) arises, having the path-consciousness as its object" (Vis.M. XXI). For the 3 higher paths, s. ariya-puggala.
Each of the 4 kinds of path-consciousness performs at the one and the same time 4 functions, namely: the function of full understanding (parin~n~a^, q.v.) of suffering, the function of overcoming (paha^na, q.v.) the origin of suffering, the function of realizing (sacchikiriya^) the extinction of suffering, the function of developing (bha^vana^, q.v.) the supermundane Noble Eightfold Path (magga, q.v.).
See Path of Purification, by Buddhaghosa, tr. by n~yanamoli (BPS); Path of Freedom, by Upatissa (BPS).
ji^vitindriya; s. indriya, khandha (corporeality, mental formations), Tab. II.
Volition == 行
or mental formation, or action, or conduct, or deed, usually done through the body, mouth or mind. The Sanskrit word is Samskara.
cetana^ (q.v.).
Di
佛教教义。意谓真理或实在。主要有四谛、二谛、三谛等不同说法。
四谛 1、苦谛。苦是受逼迫苦恼之意,主要指三界生死轮回的苦恼。有三苦、八苦的不同。三苦,一为苦苦,指正在受痛苦时的苦恼;二为坏苦,是享受快乐结束时的苦恼;三为行苦,谓不苦不乐时,为无常变化的自然规律所支配的苦恼,包括生、老、病、死在内。八苦即生苦、老苦、病苦、死苦、求不得苦、怨憎会苦、爱别离苦、五阴盛苦。佛教认为,三苦、八苦有的是社会原因造成的,有的是自然原因造成的。
2、集谛。亦名习谛。集是积聚感招之意。说一切众生,常时以来,由于贪瞋愚痴的行动,造成的善恶行为的业因,能感招将来的生死苦果。
3、灭谛。亦名尽谛,为息灭、灭尽之意,灭尽三界内之烦恼业因以及生死果报,称为灭,也称了脱生死,从此不再受三界内的生死苦恼,达到涅槃寂灭境界,即为解脱。
4、道谛。道为通达之意,也是道路的意思。这种道路是达到寂灭解脱的方法和手段;原始佛教认为道谛是指八正道。以后大、小乘又各有发展。佛教认为依道谛去修行,就能达到寂灭解脱的灭谛。由此途径确实可以达到解脱生死的目的。
二谛 即真谛和俗谛。又称第一义谛、世俗谛,或名胜义谛与名言谛。真俗二谛,中观派的基本思想是缘起性空论,认为世间出世间万事万物,都是由众多因素相依相持而形成的,是有,称假有,这就是世俗谛,没有独立不变的自性,是空,称性空,这就是真谛,所以真俗二谛,就是空、有二谛。这是就外在的物境而言。若以主观认识而论,谓世俗谛是有,这是世间一般人的常识见解;言真谛为空是二乘圣者特有的超世见解。实际上,说有不住有,谈空不落空,空有无碍,才是真俗二谛的正观。又世俗谛的有,是世间万事万物的现象;真谛的空,是世间万事万物的本性。缘起才能性空,性空才能缘起,缘起与性空实际是一种事物的两个方面,相反相成,对立而统一。所以缘起就是性空,性空就是缘起。如《般若经》中说:色即是空,空即是色,不二而二,二而不二。大乘佛教各宗,因为传承或立论方法不同,对二谛的解释也各不相同。有的认为二谛是理,有的认为二谛是教。天台宗认为二谛或三谛是真实不虚的谛理,故云:“三谛者,天然之性德也。”三论宗认为真俗二谛是两种真实不虚的言教:“二谛者,盖是言教之通诠,相待之假称……唯是教门,不关境理。”
三谛 即空谛、假谛、中道谛。佛教天台宗所立的谛理。认为一切事物都由因缘而生,没有永恒不变的实体,叫做空谛;一切事物其中虽无永恒不变的实体,却有如幻如化的相貌,叫做假谛;这些都不出法性,不待造作而有,叫做中道谛。一切事物,皆不出此空、假、中三谛的范畴,故称为三谛之理。《始终心要》说:“三谛者,天然之性德也,中谛者统一切法,真谛者泯一切法,假谛者立一切法。”又此三谛,圆融无碍,一即是三,三即是一。如观空时,无假无中无不空;观假时,无空无中无不假;观中道时,无空无假无不中,名为圆融三谛。《中观论·四谛品》说:“因缘所生法,我说即是空,亦为是假名,亦是中道义”。此偈被认为是圆融三谛的出处。(刘峰)
Hui
又称增上慧学,亦即智慧。慧就是有厌、无欲、见真。摈除一切欲望和烦恼,专思四谛、十二因缘,以窥见法,获得智慧解脱。
Kong
佛教教义。音译舜若。佛教用来表述“非有”、“非存在”的一个基本概念。佛教各时期、各派别对空的解释不一。在原始佛教中,空只是整个佛教理论体系中的一个普通概念。部派佛教时期,这一概念成为当时争论的重点之一。大乘佛教时期,尤其是般若经系统的大乘思想则进而以空为其理论基础。从所否定的对象来说,空可分“我空”、“法空”两种。我空,即认为一切有情都是由各个组成元素聚合而成,不断流转生灭,因此不存在常一主宰的主体——我,这是小乘佛教的观点;法空,则认为一切事物都依赖于一定的因缘或条件才能存在,本身没有任何质的规定性,但法空并非虚无,它是一种不可描述的实在,称为“妙有”,这主要是大乘中观派阐明的观点。从论证的方式来说,空可分“分析空”、“当体空”两种。分析空即从统一之可分解为若干部分或因素上,从事物的生灭变化上,说明事物的不实在和不自在,这主要是小乘所采用的方法;当体空则认为一切事物无须分解,只要用空的理法去观察,就可以明白它本身就是空的,这主要是大乘所采用的方法。从是否终极真理来说,大乘又把空分成“但空”、“不但空”两种。把空当作绝对的虚无,认识不到它实际是有的一种存在形式,即一种妙有,就是但空,也叫“恶趣空”;反之,如能认识到事物不但有空的一面,还有不空的一面,认识到空不遣有,有不离空,空中摄有,有内存空,这就是不但空,也叫中道。从上述几种对空的基本解释出发,佛教各派还推衍出三空、四空、六空、七空、十空、十一空、十二空、十四空、十六空、十八空、十九空、二十空等。其中以《大品般若》、《大智度论》所说的十八空影响较大。(方广錩)
ye
佛教术语。音译“羯磨”。最早见于印度的古奥义书,是婆罗门教、耆那教、生活派(邪命外道)等都袭用的术语。佛教中一般解释为造作。人的身、口、意造作善法与不善法,名为身业、口(语)业、意业。业生灭相续,必感苦乐等果,果是业果,结果的因谓之业因。业虽由人的身口意所造,但受烦恼的支配。《大智度论》卷九十四称:“烦恼因缘,故起诸业。”这样就构成惑(烦恼)、业、苦(果)之间的因果关系。《大毗婆沙论》卷一百二十三说:业有作用(语业)、行动(身业)、造作(意业)三义。唯识论者认为,身语二业是假业,意业是感果的主体。唐窥基在《义林章》中说,二业(身、语)三业(身、语、意)皆是假立,然有差别,身语二业,假表业体,实是表色,非是业性;其发身语现行之思,实是业性招异熟果。
业的分类甚多,所招业果,为业因的果报,报有总别,其引发总报的业称引业,成满别报的业称满业。身语意三业,由于身的行动和语的音声都有对外表示能使人知的意义,所以谓之表业,此通三乘。大乘更加意表,认为意业于自内心有其表示,所以也是表业。《瑜伽师地论》谓“唯自起心,内意思择,……但发善、染污、无记法现行意表业”。现行与身表、语表、意表共于身中各自产生业体(善恶功能),这种业体不为人知,名为身无表业、语无表业、意无表业。声闻乘不立意表和意无表业。《俱舍论》立无表有三:1、律仪。有防非止恶的功能;2、不律仪。有作恶止善的功能;3、非律仪非不律仪。介乎二者之间。根据善恶报应和尽业说还建立四业:1、黑黑业。恶业名黑,恶业招感苦果(恶报),因果皆黑;2、白白业。善业名白,善业招感乐果(善报),因果都白;3、黑白业。指善恶交织之业;4、不黑不白业。为解脱善恶诸业的无漏业。此外,尚有思业(意业)、思已业(身语二业)等之别。(王新)
yujia
佛教修行方法之一。yoga一词源于动词字根yuj,意为给牛上轭,引申而有连接、接合等含义。中国旧译“相应”。佛教早就用以表示总摄修心。修慧的法门。
修习方法 由于各宗、各派、各乘、各部的要求和形式不同,名目繁多。其中共同的有严持戒律,调息炼气,凝神观想等。《瑜伽经》(梵文本)提出瑜伽有八支,即禁戒、持戒、会势、制感、调息、持摄、静虑、三摩地(三昧,等持)。佛教中既有各种禅法的专著,如《修行道地经》等;又有各种以三昧为名的经典,如《首楞严三昧经》、《月灯三昧经》、《般舟三昧经》等,均属于瑜伽修法。隋唐以后,各宗提倡观法,如天台宗的“一心三观”,华严宗的“法界观”,法相宗的“唯识观”,净土宗的“十六观”的禅宗的各种参禅方法等等,其有关著述也属于瑜伽。在秘密部中,事部以持诵真言、结坛、供养等事相为主,不名瑜伽;行部因为事相、观想并重,藏传佛教宁玛派又名之为两俱乘,故可附属瑜伽部;瑜伽部以五相成身观法为主;无上瑜伽部以修中脉、风息、明点为特点。其中父部重修风息,名曰命瑜伽;母部重修明点,名曰勤瑜伽;无二部重修双运。三者只就偏重而言,并非截然有别。无上部的理论认为中脉(近似道教的督脉)中有21个结,利用修风息、明点之力可以打开这些结。每打开二结好上升一地,逐渐引发无量神通、智慧,最后打开顶上一结即圆证三身五智而成佛果。
果位 《瑜伽经·威力》中列举了瑜伽行者得三摩地后所得各种超人能力(神通),佛教也认为修瑜伽最后能证三乘之果,即阿罗汉、缘觉和佛三种果位。在证最后果位之前也可先得超人威力,即六种神通(天眼通、天耳通、神足通、他心通、宿命通、漏尽通)。其中前五通与婆罗门教瑜伽派等相似,漏尽通为佛教所独有。此中神足通(神境通)又分能变通、能化通两种。能变通有十八变,即振动、炽然、流布等;能化通有三化,即化为身,化为境,化为语。龙树所作《方便心论》,列举“瑜伽外道”有能小、为大、轻举、远到、随所欲、分身、尊胜、隐没等“八自在”。又在《大智度论》中列举佛教有能小、能大、能轻、能自在、能自主、能无至(此又有飞行远至、此没彼出、移远为近不往而到、于一念中遍到十方等4种)、能动(6种或18种震动)、随意等“八神变”。
功能 在怛多罗经典中称之为悉地(成就),得悉地的人名为悉陀(成就者)或须陀补噜沙(成就人)。悉地种类繁多,在外宗的典籍中有18、24或34种,但一般认为有8种,即能小、轻举、能大、能远到、为主、尊胜、自在、随所欲。在佛教中,汉地密宗与西藏前弘、后弘各派对悉地的说法略有不同。汉地密宗与西藏前弘、后弘各派对悉地的说法略有不同。汉地密宗分有相悉地、无相悉地两种。有相悉地主要有悉灾、增益、降伏、敬爱、诛灭、钩召等;无相悉地即大乘各地圣果,能证得五地至十一地菩萨之身或本尊身,最后证得大毗卢遮那如来法界普现色身。有相悉地用事部的法门,修增益法即可成就;无相悉地则需修金、胎两部大法。密教虽也和显教一样,认为诸菩萨地及佛地之果超胜一切,但显教说成佛要经无数大劫,密宗的理论则认为可以“即身成佛”。藏传佛教的真言乘或金刚乘,也主张“即身成佛”。他们一般分悉地为共同悉地及殊胜悉地两类。共同悉地和汉传有相悉地相似,主要有:宝剑、眼药(安缮那药)、捷足、隐形、摄取精华、虚空行、大地行、地下行等八种;殊胜悉地,即修习瑜伽部或无上瑜伽部的方法证得佛果。瑜伽部和汉传相同,即修五相成身观:1`、通达菩提心。即证法界体性智;2、修菩提心。即证大圆镜智。上二者为种子位,即法身;3、成金刚心。即证平等性智;4、证金刚身。即证妙观察智。此为尊形位,即化身。修此五相成身观,于一座法中即可圆证三身五智。藏传佛教因此法属瑜伽部,认为需十六生才能成佛,故不甚重视,而偏重于无上瑜伽部各种修脉、风、明点的方法,最后证得金刚身或虹身(帝弓身)。一般分为即生成佛、死有成佛、中有成佛、转生成佛四类。得此果位,现生或转生都是“化身”,俗称“活佛”。这是藏传佛教产生活佛制度的理论根据。宁玛派的理论认为修顿断和超越两种瑜伽都可以即生成佛。修顿断法最后身化极微而成佛。修超越法最后四种光影现前,当“法性尽光”现前时,其身化为光明而成佛。
源流 早在巴利语系大藏经中,有《瑜伽抉择》一书。古印度僧伽罗叉编著的《修行道地经》(先由安世高译出略本,后有竺法护译出全本7卷),原名瑜伽遮复弥与后来唐玄奘所译《瑜伽师地论》同名。可见汉晋佛教初传时,曾将瑜伽译为“道”字。其后佛陀跋陀罗又将瑜伽译为“禅”字。由僧伽罗叉的《修行道地经》以至弥勒、无著的《瑜伽师地论》,其内容都包括了佛说的三乘(声闻、缘觉、菩萨)法门,即全部大小二乘的教法。最胜子的《瑜伽师地论释》中说:“谓一切乘、境、行、果等所有诸法皆名瑜伽,一切并有方便善巧相应义故。”他随后广引各种经教证成此义,认为瑜伽一名包括全部佛法,一切三乘行者及诸佛如来,都可名为瑜伽师。
印度大乘佛教自清辨起,分为空、有二宗,形成中观派和瑜伽行派。但龙树的弟子提婆所作《百论》,颂本题名为《菩萨瑜伽行四百论颂》,说明中观派最初也认为自己的观法属于瑜伽行。
上述《瑜伽经》是印度六派哲学之一的瑜伽派的根本典籍,为钵颠阇梨所作。其中专门术语大部分与佛教所用名词相同,基本理论也有很多类似之处,故二者是互相影响的。《瑜伽经》分为三摩地、修习、威力、独存四篇。经文开始说“瑜伽者,心转相灭”。全经主要阐述如何消灭心的转起,最后达到解脱的境界。这和佛教提出的消灭转识,证得转依,显发无垢识,证得无住涅槃,生起三身四智之大菩提果等说法,基本精神并无不同。经文最后提到证得“法云三摩地”,才能进一步达到最高的独存境界,而佛教也认为菩萨要证得第十法云地才能成佛。经中的修法从调息入手,并以之为主要方法,也和佛教早期的《修行道地经》相同。而《威力》篇所讲的各种神通则和《修行道地经》所说大同小异,但《瑜伽经》与佛教学说有两点不同。一是此经以数论的学说作为理论基础。数论的世界观和佛教不同,中观、瑜伽两派的著作都对之采取批判态度。其次,《瑜伽经》承认一个具有人格的“自在(天)”作为修行者发愿成就的对象。这个自在(天)是不为烦恼、业、异熟(报)、意乐所染污的殊胜神我,具有无限的一切智性种子,用语言“唵”来表出。修行者应念诵此字并观想其意义。而佛教在理论上则不承认自在天有创世的能力和作用,虽不否认其存在,但不以之为崇拜的最早对象。可是大乘佛教认为证入法云地的十地菩萨可以为大自在天。在密教的理论中也建立一个无始无终无生灭的法身普贤如来为诸佛之祖,名之为本初佛(阿提佛、元始佛、第一佛)。而且密教也以“ 唵”为三身种子真言,代表诸佛的法、报、化三身。密宗的修法也以念诵、观想种子真言的形、音、义为主。可见《瑜伽经》的内容基本上是和佛教互相贯通的。
经典 随着大乘佛教的兴盛,5世纪以后秘密经典也在印度大量出现。和过去流行的大小乘经典取名苏怛罗(sutra,原意为纺织的经线)不同,这些秘密经典都取名为怛多罗(tantra,原意为纺织的纬线)。唐代不空译为“教王经”,元代以来从西藏译名rgyud(相续)译为“本续”或“续”字。同一时期,印度各教派也有大量名为怛多罗的著作出现,近人名之为怛多罗文学。这一类怛多罗作品基本上包含世界的创生、世界的毁灭、诸神的崇拜、超人能力(即神通)的获得、通过禅定观想等与最高神合一的方法等五方面内容,它与1~2世纪出现于中国的“纬书”,在内容上颇有相同之点,但后者远早于前者。自唐不空三藏系统传译这类经典以后,传统认为这些密法都是受婆罗门教或印度教的影响而发展起来的。但近代有些学者则认为印度教中同类的密法均是从佛教中汲取移植过去的。
佛教的怛多罗典籍数量极其庞大,全部被称为瑜伽法门或瑜伽部。唐龙朔三年(663)玄奘译出《般若经理趣分》编入600卷的《大般若经》中。此经亦为《大乐金刚不空真实三昧耶经》的一分,属于密典瑜伽部。开元七年(719)来华的金刚智首次传译了金刚顶瑜伽部法门。其弟子不空至师子国(今斯里兰卡)学习密法,取回《金刚顶经》十八会十万颂,虽然只翻译了其中一小部分,但却写有《金刚顶瑜伽十八会指归》一书,对各会内容作了介绍。不空对瑜伽部的经典没有进行再分类。但藏传佛教前弘期传下的宁玛派以及后弘期各派曾对瑜伽部经典作了详细的分类。宁玛派把整个佛教典籍分为九乘。其中密部名为金刚乘,计有六乘,即事乘、行乘、瑜伽乘、大瑜伽乘、随瑜伽乘(当为无上瑜伽乘)、无极瑜伽乘。后弘期各家分部大同小异,通行的为四部之说,即事部、行部、瑜伽部、无上瑜伽部。无上瑜伽部又分三部,即父部、母部、无二部。四部中前三部与六乘中之前三乘同,父、母、无二三部则与后三乘相当。各部经典、各种陀罗尼、真言及一尊一咒的法门属于事部(乘),《大日经》属于行部,《真实摄经》及《大乐金刚经》等属于瑜伽部,《密集》(即金刚顶瑜伽十八会中之《秘密集会瑜伽》,宋施护译为《一切如来金刚三业最上秘密大教王经》7卷),属于父部,《喜金刚》(宋法护译为《大悲空智金刚大教王经》5卷)属于母部。至于无二瑜伽部的经典,汉地未有传译。西藏后弘期以时轮金刚的经典属无二瑜伽部。前弘期的宁玛派以无极瑜伽的经典最为丰富,几乎全部都是在印度未曾公开流传的。(郭元兴)
s. paccaya, 2.
”object”. There are six: visible object, sound, odor, taste, body-impression, mind-object. The mind-object (dhamma^rammana) may be physical or mental, past, present or future, real or imaginary. The 5 sense-objects belong to the corporeality-group (rúpa-kkhandha, s. khandha). They form the external foundations for the sense-perceptions, and without them no sense-perception or sense-consciousness (seeing, hearing, etc.) can arise. Cf. a^yatana, paccaya. (App: paccaya 2.).
s. citta-vi^thi.
”advertence” of the mind towards the object, forms the first stage in the process of consciousness (s. vin~n~a^na-kicca). If an object of the 5 physical senses is concerned, it is called ”five-door advertence” (pan~ca dva^ra^vajjana); in the case of a mental object, ”mind-door advertence” (mano-dva^ra^vajjana).
”covetousness” is a synonym of lobha (s. múla) and tanha^ (q.v.) and is the 8th link of the unwholesome courses of action (s. kamma-patha, I).
lit.”That which cannot or should not be thought, the unthinkable, ...
lit.”That which cannot or should not be thought, the unthinkable, incomprehensible, impenetrable, that which transcends the limits of thinking and over which therefore one should not ponder.
These 4 unthinkables are:
the sphere of a Buddha (buddha-visaya),
of the meditative absorptions (jha^na-visaya),
of karma-result (kamma-vipa^ka), and
brooding over the world (loka-cinta^), especially over an absolute first beginning of it
(s. A.IV.77).
"Therefore, o monks, do not brood over the world as to whether it is eternal or temporal, limited or endless .... Such brooding, O monks, is senseless, has nothing to do with genuine pure conduct (s. a^dibrahmacariyaka-si^la), does not lead to aversion, detachment, extinction, nor to peace, to full comprehension, enlightenment and Nibba^na, etc." (S.56.41).
para^ma^sa (q.v.)
sikkha^ ”training in higher mentality”; s. sikkha^.