s. bha^va.
”purification”, purity. The ”7 stages of purification” (satta-visuddhi) form the substructure of Upatissa”s Vimutti-Magga (The Path To Freedom), preserved only in Chinese, as well as of Buddhaghosa”s monumental work, Visuddhi-Magga (The Path of Purification), based on the former work.
The only place in the Canon where these 7 kinds of purification are mentioned is M. 24, "The Simile of the Stage-coach" (s.”Path”, §64), wherein their purpose and goal are illustrated. There it is said that the real and ultimate goal does not consist in purification of morality, or of mind, or of view, etc., but in total deliverance and extinction. Now, just as one mounts the first coach and travels to the second coach, then mounts the second coach and travels with it to the third coach, etc., in exactly the same way the goal of (I) the purification of morality (sila-visuddhi) is (II) the purification of mind (citta-visuddhi); its goal: (III) the purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi); its goal: (IV) the purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^vitarana-visuddhi); its goal: (V) the purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); its goal: (VI) the purification by knowledge and vision of the path-progress (patipada^-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); its goal: (VII) the purification of knowledge and vision (n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); but the goal of this purification is deliverance freed from all clinging.
(I) "Purification of morality (si^la-visuddhi) consists of the 4-fold purity of morality (catu-pa^risuddhi-si^la), namely: restraint with regard to the Disciplinary Code (pa^timokkhasamvara-si^la), sense-restraint (indriysamvara-si^la), purity of livelihood (a^ji^vapa^risuddhi-si^la), morality with regard to the 4 requisites (paccaya-sannissita-si^la)" (Vis.M. XVIII). On these 4 terms, s. si^la. - In the case of a layman, it entails the observance of whatever moral rules (5 or more) he has taken upon himself.
(II) "Purification of mind (citta-visuddhi) is a name for the 8 attainments (= absorptions: jha^na, q.v.), as well as for neighbourhood-concentration (upaca^ra-sama^dhi; s. sama^dhi)." (ib.).
(III) "By purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi) is meant the understanding, according to reality, of mind and corporeality (na^marúpa, q.v.)... which is founded on undeludedness (wisdom) as base, and which in manifold ways determines mind and corporeality after overcoming all belief in a persollality (atta^: self, ego.)." (ib.).
(IV) "By purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^-vitarana-visuddhi) is meant the understanding which, by grasping the conditions of this mind and corporeality, has escaped from all doubt with regard to the 3 times (past, present, future)." (ib. XIX)
(V) "By purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is meant that understanding which knows the right path from the wrong path: ”This is the right path, that the wrong path.”" (ib. XX)
In order to attain this 5th stage of purification, one at first should develop methodical insight (naya-vipassana^), i.e. through contemplation of the 5 groups of existence (khandha, q.v.). For whosoever does not yet possess a perfectly developed insight, to him such phenomena as effulgence of light, etc. (see below), arising during insight, may become impediments in the 3 kinds of full understanding here considered (s. parin~n~a^).
”As soon as the manifold ways and characteristics of the 4 Truths (sacca) and the dependent origination (paticcasamuppa^da) have become clear to the meditating disciple, he says to himself: Thus do these things never before arisen arise, and having arisen they disappear again. Thus do the formations of existence ever and again arise as something quite new. But not only are they something new, they are moreover also of limited duration, like a dew-drop at sunrise, like a bubble, like a line drawn with a stick in the water, like a mustard seed placed on the point of an arrow, or like a flash of lightning. Also as something unsubstantial and empty do they appear, as jugglery, as a mirage .... Merely something subject to vanishing arises, and having arisen disappears again.”"
During such insight practice, however, may arise the 10 imperfections (or defilements) of insight (vipassanúpakkilesa): effulgence of light (obha^sa), knowledge (n~a^na), rapture (pi^ti), tranquillity (passaddhi), happiness (sukha), determination (adhimokkha), energy (paggaha), awareness (upattha^na), delight (nikanti). - See Vis.M. XX, 105f. (App.).
Excepting the last one, ”delight”, they are not imperfections or defilements in themselves, but may become a basis for them through the arising of pride or delight or by a wrong conclusion that one of the holy paths has been attained. He, however, who is watchful and experienced in insight practice, will know that these states of mind do not indicate attainment of the true path, but are only symptoms or concomitants of insight meditation.
"Thus far the meditating disciple has determined 3 of the truths, namely while determining the corporeal and mental phenomena he has, through purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of suffering”. While grasping the conditions he has, through purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^-vitarana-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of the origin of suffering”. While determining the right path, he has, through purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of the path” (leading to the extinction of suffering)."
(VI) Purification by knowledge and vision of the path-progress (patipada^-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is the insight perfected in 8 kinds of knowledge, together with the 9th knowledge, the ”knowledge adapting itself to truth”.
By the 8 kinds of knowledge are here meant the following, which are freed from defilements, follow the right process, and are considered as insight, namely:
1. knowledge consisting in contemplation of rise and fall (udayabbaya^nupassana^-n~a^na),
2. in contemplation of dissolution (bhanga^nupassana^-n~a^na),
3. in awareness of terror (or the fearful) (bhayatúpattha^na^-n~a^na),
4. in contemplation of misery (a^di^nava^nupassana^-n~a^na),
5. in contemplation of aversion (nibbida^nupassana^-n~a^na),
6. in the desire for deliverance (muccitu-kamyata^-n~a^na),
7. in reflecting contemplation (patisankha^nupassana^-n~a^na),
8. in equanimity regarding all formations of existence (sankha^rupekkha^-n~a^na) - which is followed by
9. in adaptation to truth (sacca^nulomika-n~a^na).
(1) consists in the meditative observation of the 3 characteristics of existence (impermanence, suffering, no self) in one”s own bodily and mental processes. As long as the mind is still disturbed by the 10 imperfections (s. V), the 3 characteristics will not become fully clear in their true nature. Only when the mind is free from these imperfections can the characteristics be observed clearly.
(2) When through such repeated practice, knowledge and mindfulness have grown keen and the bodily and mental formations become apparent quickly, at that stage the phase of dissolution of these formations will become prominent.
"Consciousness with (e.g.) materiality as its object arises and dissolves. Having reflected on that object, he contemplates the dissolution of (reflecting) consciousness." (Pts.M. I, 57, quoted in Vis.M. XXI, 11).
The 8 blessings of this knowledge are: abandoning the belief in eternal existence (bhava-ditthi), giving up attachment to life, constant right application (of mind to meditative endeavour), a purified livelihood, overcoming of anxiety, absence of fear, acquisition of forbearance and gentleness, conquest of discontent and sensual delight (Vis.M. XXI, 28).
(3) Knowledge consisting in awareness of terror (or fearfulness) is the seeing of terror in the conditions as well as the continuity of existence. For whoso considers the formations as impermanent, to him the conditions of existence (i.e. the karma-formations producing ever new existence) appear as terror, as driving towards death. Whoso considers the formations as misery, to him the continuity of existence appears as terror, as something oppressive. Whoso considers the formations as impersonal, to him the karmaformations, as well as the continuity of existence, appear as terror, as an empty village, as a mirage, etc.
(4) Contemplation of misery (or danger) is another aspect of the awareness of terror: "The origin (of existence) is terror ... continuance of existence is terror ... arising is suffering”, such understanding in the awareness of terror is the knowledge of misery.”Non-arising is bliss”, this is knowledge of the peaceful state (Pts.M. I, 59); that is, the no-more-arising is safety, is happiness, is Nibba^na.
(5) Contemplation of aversion means: aversion for all formations as terror, therefore its name ”awareness of terror” has come into use. Because it has made known the misery of all these formations, therefore it has received the name of ”contemplation of misery” (a^di^nava^nupassana^). Because it has arisen through aversion for those formations, therefore it is known as ”contemplation of aversion” (nibbida^nupassana^).
(6) Knowledge consisting in the desire for deliverance means: the desire for freedom and escape from all formations of existence.. For feeling aversion for all formations, becoming weary of them, finding no more delight in them, the mind does not cling to a single one of all these formations.
(7) Reflecting contemplation is the repeated meditative discernment of the formations of existence, attributing to them the 3 characteristics of existence, with the desire to find deliverance from all forms of existence.
(8) Equanimity regarding all formations: "When the meditator (through reflecting contemplation) has discerned the formations by applying the 3 characteristics to them and sees them as void, he abandons both terror and delight, and becomes indifferent and equanimous with regard to all formations; he neither takes them as I nor as ”mine”; he is like a man who has divorced his wife" (Vis.M. XXI, 61).
Now, while continuing to contemplate the 3 characteristics of existence and perceiving the tranquil lot of Nibba^na as the peace, this equanimity-knowledge becomes the triple gateway to liberation. As it is said (Pts.M. II, p. 48):
"Three gateways to liberation (vimokkha-mukha; s. vimokkha I) lead to escape from the world, namely: that the mind is contemplating all formations as limited, and is rushing forward to the conditionless element (animitta-dha^tu); that the mind is stirred with regard to all formations of existence, and is rushing forward to the desireless element (appanihita-dha^tu); that the mind sees all things as something foreign, and is rushing forward to the void element (sun~n~ata^-dha^tu)."
At this stage, and through the triple gateway, the diversification of path attainment takes place, according to the 7 kinds of noble persons (ariya-puggala, q.v.); on this see Vis.M. XXI, 74ff.
The 6th, 7th and 8th knowledges, according to Vis.M. XXI, form really only one single knowledge in its first, middle and final stages of development. This knowledge is also known as the ”insight leading to path ascent” (vuttha^na-ga^mini^-vipassana^, q.v.).
(9) Adaptation to truth (or conformity with truth) is called that knowledge which, while contemplating impermanency, etc. adapts itself to the preceding 8 kinds of insight-knowledge, as well as to the immediately following supermundane path and to the 37 elements pertaining to enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya-dhamma, q.v.). It is identical with adaptation-knowledge (anuloman~a^na).
"Whosoever has cultivated, developed, and frequently practised ”equanimity regarding all formations” in him arises very strong faith known as determination (adhimokkha-saddha^) and his energy is better exerted, his mindfulness better established, his mind better concentrated, and a still stronger ”equanimity regarding the formations” arises.”Now the path will reveal itself”, thus thinking, the meditator contemplates with his equanimity-knowledge all formations as impermanent, etc., and thereafter that knowledge sinks into the subconscious stream of existence (s. bhavanga-sota^). Immediately afterwards there arises advertence at the mind-door (s. vin~n~a^na-kicca). And just like equanimity-knowledge, the adaptation-knowledge, too, takes as its object the formations, regarding them as something impermanent, miserable and impersonal. Thereupon, while continuing the uninterrupted continuity of consciousness (citta-santati), there arises the 1st impulsive moment (javana, q.v.), called ”preparation” (parikamma), taking the same formations as object. Immediately thereafter, with the same formations as object, there arises the 2nd impulsive moment, known as ”access” (upaca^ra). And again immediately after that, there arises the impulsive moment called ”adaptation” (anuloma)."
(VII) Purification of knowledge and vision (n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is the knowledge associated with any of the 4 kinds of supermundane path-consciousness (s. ariyapuggala).
"Immediately upon this adaptation-knowledge there arises the ”maturity-knowlege” (gotrabhú-n~a^na; s. gotrabhú) taking as object the Unconditioned, the standstill of existence, the absence of becoming, cessation, Nibba^na, while at the same time transcending the rank (gotta = gotra: lineage), designation and plane of the worldling (puthujjana, q.v.), and entering the rank, designation and plane of the Noble Ones (ariya), being the first turning towards Nibba^na as object, the first thinking of it, the first concentration on it, and the condition for the path ... forming the culmination of insight, and never as such coming back again.
””As the immediate continuation following upon that maturity knowledge (gotrabhú-n~a^na), there arises the first path-consciousness (Stream-entrance) forever destroying the first 3 of the 10 fetters of existence (samyojana, q.v.), and closing the entrance to the lower worlds. Immediately after this path-knowledge, there arise, as its result, 2 or 3 path-produced states of consciousness, the fruitional consciousness (phala-citta). Immediately after the sinking of this consciousness into the subconscious stream of existence, the retrospective knowledge (paccavekkhana-n~a^na, q.v.) arises, having the path-consciousness as its object" (Vis.M. XXI). For the 3 higher paths, s. ariya-puggala.
Each of the 4 kinds of path-consciousness performs at the one and the same time 4 functions, namely: the function of full understanding (parin~n~a^, q.v.) of suffering, the function of overcoming (paha^na, q.v.) the origin of suffering, the function of realizing (sacchikiriya^) the extinction of suffering, the function of developing (bha^vana^, q.v.) the supermundane Noble Eightfold Path (magga, q.v.).
See Path of Purification, by Buddhaghosa, tr. by n~yanamoli (BPS); Path of Freedom, by Upatissa (BPS).
ji^vitindriya; s. indriya, khandha (corporeality, mental formations), Tab. II.
Volition == 行
or mental formation, or action, or conduct, or deed, usually done through the body, mouth or mind. The Sanskrit word is Samskara.
cetana^ (q.v.).
Di
佛教教義。意謂真理或實在。主要有四谛、二谛、叁谛等不同說法。
四谛 1、苦谛。苦是受逼迫苦惱之意,主要指叁界生死輪回的苦惱。有叁苦、八苦的不同。叁苦,一爲苦苦,指正在受痛苦時的苦惱;二爲壞苦,是享受快樂結束時的苦惱;叁爲行苦,謂不苦不樂時,爲無常變化的自然規律所支配的苦惱,包括生、老、病、死在內。八苦即生苦、老苦、病苦、死苦、求不得苦、怨憎會苦、愛別離苦、五陰盛苦。佛教認爲,叁苦、八苦有的是社會原因造成的,有的是自然原因造成的。
2、集谛。亦名習谛。集是積聚感招之意。說一切衆生,常時以來,由于貪瞋愚癡的行動,造成的善惡行爲的業因,能感招將來的生死苦果。
3、滅谛。亦名盡谛,爲息滅、滅盡之意,滅盡叁界內之煩惱業因以及生死果報,稱爲滅,也稱了脫生死,從此不再受叁界內的生死苦惱,達到涅槃寂滅境界,即爲解脫。
4、道谛。道爲通達之意,也是道路的意思。這種道路是達到寂滅解脫的方法和手段;原始佛教認爲道谛是指八正道。以後大、小乘又各有發展。佛教認爲依道谛去修行,就能達到寂滅解脫的滅谛。由此途徑確實可以達到解脫生死的目的。
二谛 即真谛和俗谛。又稱第一義谛、世俗谛,或名勝義谛與名言谛。真俗二谛,中觀派的基本思想是緣起性空論,認爲世間出世間萬事萬物,都是由衆多因素相依相持而形成的,是有,稱假有,這就是世俗谛,沒有獨立不變的自性,是空,稱性空,這就是真谛,所以真俗二谛,就是空、有二谛。這是就外在的物境而言。若以主觀認識而論,謂世俗谛是有,這是世間一般人的常識見解;言真谛爲空是二乘聖者特有的超世見解。實際上,說有不住有,談空不落空,空有無礙,才是真俗二谛的正觀。又世俗谛的有,是世間萬事萬物的現象;真谛的空,是世間萬事萬物的本性。緣起才能性空,性空才能緣起,緣起與性空實際是一種事物的兩個方面,相反相成,對立而統一。所以緣起就是性空,性空就是緣起。如《般若經》中說:色即是空,空即是色,不二而二,二而不二。大乘佛教各宗,因爲傳承或立論方法不同,對二谛的解釋也各不相同。有的認爲二谛是理,有的認爲二谛是教。天臺宗認爲二谛或叁谛是真實不虛的谛理,故雲:“叁谛者,天然之性德也。”叁論宗認爲真俗二谛是兩種真實不虛的言教:“二谛者,蓋是言教之通诠,相待之假稱……唯是教門,不關境理。”
叁谛 即空谛、假谛、中道谛。佛教天臺宗所立的谛理。認爲一切事物都由因緣而生,沒有永恒不變的實體,叫做空谛;一切事物其中雖無永恒不變的實體,卻有如幻如化的相貌,叫做假谛;這些都不出法性,不待造作而有,叫做中道谛。一切事物,皆不出此空、假、中叁谛的範疇,故稱爲叁谛之理。《始終心要》說:“叁谛者,天然之性德也,中谛者統一切法,真谛者泯一切法,假谛者立一切法。”又此叁谛,圓融無礙,一即是叁,叁即是一。如觀空時,無假無中無不空;觀假時,無空無中無不假;觀中道時,無空無假無不中,名爲圓融叁谛。《中觀論·四谛品》說:“因緣所生法,我說即是空,亦爲是假名,亦是中道義”。此偈被認爲是圓融叁谛的出處。(劉峰)
Hui
又稱增上慧學,亦即智慧。慧就是有厭、無欲、見真。擯除一切欲望和煩惱,專思四谛、十二因緣,以窺見法,獲得智慧解脫。
Kong
佛教教義。音譯舜若。佛教用來表述“非有”、“非存在”的一個基本概念。佛教各時期、各派別對空的解釋不一。在原始佛教中,空只是整個佛教理論體系中的一個普通概念。部派佛教時期,這一概念成爲當時爭論的重點之一。大乘佛教時期,尤其是般若經系統的大乘思想則進而以空爲其理論基礎。從所否定的對象來說,空可分“我空”、“法空”兩種。我空,即認爲一切有情都是由各個組成元素聚合而成,不斷流轉生滅,因此不存在常一主宰的主體——我,這是小乘佛教的觀點;法空,則認爲一切事物都依賴于一定的因緣或條件才能存在,本身沒有任何質的規定性,但法空並非虛無,它是一種不可描述的實在,稱爲“妙有”,這主要是大乘中觀派闡明的觀點。從論證的方式來說,空可分“分析空”、“當體空”兩種。分析空即從統一之可分解爲若幹部分或因素上,從事物的生滅變化上,說明事物的不實在和不自在,這主要是小乘所采用的方法;當體空則認爲一切事物無須分解,只要用空的理法去觀察,就可以明白它本身就是空的,這主要是大乘所采用的方法。從是否終極真理來說,大乘又把空分成“但空”、“不但空”兩種。把空當作絕對的虛無,認識不到它實際是有的一種存在形式,即一種妙有,就是但空,也叫“惡趣空”;反之,如能認識到事物不但有空的一面,還有不空的一面,認識到空不遣有,有不離空,空中攝有,有內存空,這就是不但空,也叫中道。從上述幾種對空的基本解釋出發,佛教各派還推衍出叁空、四空、六空、七空、十空、十一空、十二空、十四空、十六空、十八空、十九空、二十空等。其中以《大品般若》、《大智度論》所說的十八空影響較大。(方廣錩)
ye
佛教術語。音譯“羯磨”。最早見于印度的古奧義書,是婆羅門教、耆那教、生活派(邪命外道)等都襲用的術語。佛教中一般解釋爲造作。人的身、口、意造作善法與不善法,名爲身業、口(語)業、意業。業生滅相續,必感苦樂等果,果是業果,結果的因謂之業因。業雖由人的身口意所造,但受煩惱的支配。《大智度論》卷九十四稱:“煩惱因緣,故起諸業。”這樣就構成惑(煩惱)、業、苦(果)之間的因果關系。《大毗婆沙論》卷一百二十叁說:業有作用(語業)、行動(身業)、造作(意業)叁義。唯識論者認爲,身語二業是假業,意業是感果的主體。唐窺基在《義林章》中說,二業(身、語)叁業(身、語、意)皆是假立,然有差別,身語二業,假表業體,實是表色,非是業性;其發身語現行之思,實是業性招異熟果。
業的分類甚多,所招業果,爲業因的果報,報有總別,其引發總報的業稱引業,成滿別報的業稱滿業。身語意叁業,由于身的行動和語的音聲都有對外表示能使人知的意義,所以謂之表業,此通叁乘。大乘更加意表,認爲意業于自內心有其表示,所以也是表業。《瑜伽師地論》謂“唯自起心,內意思擇,……但發善、染汙、無記法現行意表業”。現行與身表、語表、意表共于身中各自産生業體(善惡功能),這種業體不爲人知,名爲身無表業、語無表業、意無表業。聲聞乘不立意表和意無表業。《俱舍論》立無表有叁:1、律儀。有防非止惡的功能;2、不律儀。有作惡止善的功能;3、非律儀非不律儀。介乎二者之間。根據善惡報應和盡業說還建立四業:1、黑黑業。惡業名黑,惡業招感苦果(惡報),因果皆黑;2、白白業。善業名白,善業招感樂果(善報),因果都白;3、黑白業。指善惡交織之業;4、不黑不白業。爲解脫善惡諸業的無漏業。此外,尚有思業(意業)、思已業(身語二業)等之別。(王新)
yujia
佛教修行方法之一。yoga一詞源于動詞字根yuj,意爲給牛上轭,引申而有連接、接合等含義。中國舊譯“相應”。佛教早就用以表示總攝修心。修慧的法門。
修習方法 由于各宗、各派、各乘、各部的要求和形式不同,名目繁多。其中共同的有嚴持戒律,調息煉氣,凝神觀想等。《瑜伽經》(梵文本)提出瑜伽有八支,即禁戒、持戒、會勢、製感、調息、持攝、靜慮、叁摩地(叁昧,等持)。佛教中既有各種禅法的專著,如《修行道地經》等;又有各種以叁昧爲名的經典,如《首楞嚴叁昧經》、《月燈叁昧經》、《般舟叁昧經》等,均屬于瑜伽修法。隋唐以後,各宗提倡觀法,如天臺宗的“一心叁觀”,華嚴宗的“法界觀”,法相宗的“唯識觀”,淨土宗的“十六觀”的禅宗的各種參禅方法等等,其有關著述也屬于瑜伽。在秘密部中,事部以持誦真言、結壇、供養等事相爲主,不名瑜伽;行部因爲事相、觀想並重,藏傳佛教甯瑪派又名之爲兩俱乘,故可附屬瑜伽部;瑜伽部以五相成身觀法爲主;無上瑜伽部以修中脈、風息、明點爲特點。其中父部重修風息,名曰命瑜伽;母部重修明點,名曰勤瑜伽;無二部重修雙運。叁者只就偏重而言,並非截然有別。無上部的理論認爲中脈(近似道教的督脈)中有21個結,利用修風息、明點之力可以打開這些結。每打開二結好上升一地,逐漸引發無量神通、智慧,最後打開頂上一結即圓證叁身五智而成佛果。
果位 《瑜伽經·威力》中列舉了瑜伽行者得叁摩地後所得各種超人能力(神通),佛教也認爲修瑜伽最後能證叁乘之果,即阿羅漢、緣覺和佛叁種果位。在證最後果位之前也可先得超人威力,即六種神通(天眼通、天耳通、神足通、他心通、宿命通、漏盡通)。其中前五通與婆羅門教瑜伽派等相似,漏盡通爲佛教所獨有。此中神足通(神境通)又分能變通、能化通兩種。能變通有十八變,即振動、熾然、流布等;能化通有叁化,即化爲身,化爲境,化爲語。龍樹所作《方便心論》,列舉“瑜伽外道”有能小、爲大、輕舉、遠到、隨所欲、分身、尊勝、隱沒等“八自在”。又在《大智度論》中列舉佛教有能小、能大、能輕、能自在、能自主、能無至(此又有飛行遠至、此沒彼出、移遠爲近不往而到、于一念中遍到十方等4種)、能動(6種或18種震動)、隨意等“八神變”。
功能 在怛多羅經典中稱之爲悉地(成就),得悉地的人名爲悉陀(成就者)或須陀補噜沙(成就人)。悉地種類繁多,在外宗的典籍中有18、24或34種,但一般認爲有8種,即能小、輕舉、能大、能遠到、爲主、尊勝、自在、隨所欲。在佛教中,漢地密宗與西藏前弘、後弘各派對悉地的說法略有不同。漢地密宗與西藏前弘、後弘各派對悉地的說法略有不同。漢地密宗分有相悉地、無相悉地兩種。有相悉地主要有悉災、增益、降伏、敬愛、誅滅、鈎召等;無相悉地即大乘各地聖果,能證得五地至十一地菩薩之身或本尊身,最後證得大毗盧遮那如來法界普現色身。有相悉地用事部的法門,修增益法即可成就;無相悉地則需修金、胎兩部大法。密教雖也和顯教一樣,認爲諸菩薩地及佛地之果超勝一切,但顯教說成佛要經無數大劫,密宗的理論則認爲可以“即身成佛”。藏傳佛教的真言乘或金剛乘,也主張“即身成佛”。他們一般分悉地爲共同悉地及殊勝悉地兩類。共同悉地和漢傳有相悉地相似,主要有:寶劍、眼藥(安繕那藥)、捷足、隱形、攝取精華、虛空行、大地行、地下行等八種;殊勝悉地,即修習瑜伽部或無上瑜伽部的方法證得佛果。瑜伽部和漢傳相同,即修五相成身觀:1`、通達菩提心。即證法界體性智;2、修菩提心。即證大圓鏡智。上二者爲種子位,即法身;3、成金剛心。即證平等性智;4、證金剛身。即證妙觀察智。此爲尊形位,即化身。修此五相成身觀,于一座法中即可圓證叁身五智。藏傳佛教因此法屬瑜伽部,認爲需十六生才能成佛,故不甚重視,而偏重于無上瑜伽部各種修脈、風、明點的方法,最後證得金剛身或虹身(帝弓身)。一般分爲即生成佛、死有成佛、中有成佛、轉生成佛四類。得此果位,現生或轉生都是“化身”,俗稱“活佛”。這是藏傳佛教産生活佛製度的理論根據。甯瑪派的理論認爲修頓斷和超越兩種瑜伽都可以即生成佛。修頓斷法最後身化極微而成佛。修超越法最後四種光影現前,當“法性盡光”現前時,其身化爲光明而成佛。
源流 早在巴利語系大藏經中,有《瑜伽抉擇》一書。古印度僧伽羅叉編著的《修行道地經》(先由安世高譯出略本,後有竺法護譯出全本7卷),原名瑜伽遮複彌與後來唐玄奘所譯《瑜伽師地論》同名。可見漢晉佛教初傳時,曾將瑜伽譯爲“道”字。其後佛陀跋陀羅又將瑜伽譯爲“禅”字。由僧伽羅叉的《修行道地經》以至彌勒、無著的《瑜伽師地論》,其內容都包括了佛說的叁乘(聲聞、緣覺、菩薩)法門,即全部大小二乘的教法。最勝子的《瑜伽師地論釋》中說:“謂一切乘、境、行、果等所有諸法皆名瑜伽,一切並有方便善巧相應義故。”他隨後廣引各種經教證成此義,認爲瑜伽一名包括全部佛法,一切叁乘行者及諸佛如來,都可名爲瑜伽師。
印度大乘佛教自清辨起,分爲空、有二宗,形成中觀派和瑜伽行派。但龍樹的弟子提婆所作《百論》,頌本題名爲《菩薩瑜伽行四百論頌》,說明中觀派最初也認爲自己的觀法屬于瑜伽行。
上述《瑜伽經》是印度六派哲學之一的瑜伽派的根本典籍,爲缽顛阇梨所作。其中專門術語大部分與佛教所用名詞相同,基本理論也有很多類似之處,故二者是互相影響的。《瑜伽經》分爲叁摩地、修習、威力、獨存四篇。經文開始說“瑜伽者,心轉相滅”。全經主要闡述如何消滅心的轉起,最後達到解脫的境界。這和佛教提出的消滅轉識,證得轉依,顯發無垢識,證得無住涅槃,生起叁身四智之大菩提果等說法,基本精神並無不同。經文最後提到證得“法雲叁摩地”,才能進一步達到最高的獨存境界,而佛教也認爲菩薩要證得第十法雲地才能成佛。經中的修法從調息入手,並以之爲主要方法,也和佛教早期的《修行道地經》相同。而《威力》篇所講的各種神通則和《修行道地經》所說大同小異,但《瑜伽經》與佛教學說有兩點不同。一是此經以數論的學說作爲理論基礎。數論的世界觀和佛教不同,中觀、瑜伽兩派的著作都對之采取批判態度。其次,《瑜伽經》承認一個具有人格的“自在(天)”作爲修行者發願成就的對象。這個自在(天)是不爲煩惱、業、異熟(報)、意樂所染汙的殊勝神我,具有無限的一切智性種子,用語言“唵”來表出。修行者應念誦此字並觀想其意義。而佛教在理論上則不承認自在天有創世的能力和作用,雖不否認其存在,但不以之爲崇拜的最早對象。可是大乘佛教認爲證入法雲地的十地菩薩可以爲大自在天。在密教的理論中也建立一個無始無終無生滅的法身普賢如來爲諸佛之祖,名之爲本初佛(阿提佛、元始佛、第一佛)。而且密教也以“ 唵”爲叁身種子真言,代表諸佛的法、報、化叁身。密宗的修法也以念誦、觀想種子真言的形、音、義爲主。可見《瑜伽經》的內容基本上是和佛教互相貫通的。
經典 隨著大乘佛教的興盛,5世紀以後秘密經典也在印度大量出現。和過去流行的大小乘經典取名蘇怛羅(sutra,原意爲紡織的經線)不同,這些秘密經典都取名爲怛多羅(tantra,原意爲紡織的緯線)。唐代不空譯爲“教王經”,元代以來從西藏譯名rgyud(相續)譯爲“本續”或“續”字。同一時期,印度各教派也有大量名爲怛多羅的著作出現,近人名之爲怛多羅文學。這一類怛多羅作品基本上包含世界的創生、世界的毀滅、諸神的崇拜、超人能力(即神通)的獲得、通過禅定觀想等與最高神合一的方法等五方面內容,它與1~2世紀出現于中國的“緯書”,在內容上頗有相同之點,但後者遠早于前者。自唐不空叁藏系統傳譯這類經典以後,傳統認爲這些密法都是受婆羅門教或印度教的影響而發展起來的。但近代有些學者則認爲印度教中同類的密法均是從佛教中汲取移植過去的。
佛教的怛多羅典籍數量極其龐大,全部被稱爲瑜伽法門或瑜伽部。唐龍朔叁年(663)玄奘譯出《般若經理趣分》編入600卷的《大般若經》中。此經亦爲《大樂金剛不空真實叁昧耶經》的一分,屬于密典瑜伽部。開元七年(719)來華的金剛智首次傳譯了金剛頂瑜伽部法門。其弟子不空至師子國(今斯裏蘭卡)學習密法,取回《金剛頂經》十八會十萬頌,雖然只翻譯了其中一小部分,但卻寫有《金剛頂瑜伽十八會指歸》一書,對各會內容作了介紹。不空對瑜伽部的經典沒有進行再分類。但藏傳佛教前弘期傳下的甯瑪派以及後弘期各派曾對瑜伽部經典作了詳細的分類。甯瑪派把整個佛教典籍分爲九乘。其中密部名爲金剛乘,計有六乘,即事乘、行乘、瑜伽乘、大瑜伽乘、隨瑜伽乘(當爲無上瑜伽乘)、無極瑜伽乘。後弘期各家分部大同小異,通行的爲四部之說,即事部、行部、瑜伽部、無上瑜伽部。無上瑜伽部又分叁部,即父部、母部、無二部。四部中前叁部與六乘中之前叁乘同,父、母、無二叁部則與後叁乘相當。各部經典、各種陀羅尼、真言及一尊一咒的法門屬于事部(乘),《大日經》屬于行部,《真實攝經》及《大樂金剛經》等屬于瑜伽部,《密集》(即金剛頂瑜伽十八會中之《秘密集會瑜伽》,宋施護譯爲《一切如來金剛叁業最上秘密大教王經》7卷),屬于父部,《喜金剛》(宋法護譯爲《大悲空智金剛大教王經》5卷)屬于母部。至于無二瑜伽部的經典,漢地未有傳譯。西藏後弘期以時輪金剛的經典屬無二瑜伽部。前弘期的甯瑪派以無極瑜伽的經典最爲豐富,幾乎全部都是在印度未曾公開流傳的。(郭元興)
s. paccaya, 2.
”object”. There are six: visible object, sound, odor, taste, body-impression, mind-object. The mind-object (dhamma^rammana) may be physical or mental, past, present or future, real or imaginary. The 5 sense-objects belong to the corporeality-group (rúpa-kkhandha, s. khandha). They form the external foundations for the sense-perceptions, and without them no sense-perception or sense-consciousness (seeing, hearing, etc.) can arise. Cf. a^yatana, paccaya. (App: paccaya 2.).
s. citta-vi^thi.
”advertence” of the mind towards the object, forms the first stage in the process of consciousness (s. vin~n~a^na-kicca). If an object of the 5 physical senses is concerned, it is called ”five-door advertence” (pan~ca dva^ra^vajjana); in the case of a mental object, ”mind-door advertence” (mano-dva^ra^vajjana).
”covetousness” is a synonym of lobha (s. múla) and tanha^ (q.v.) and is the 8th link of the unwholesome courses of action (s. kamma-patha, I).
lit.”That which cannot or should not be thought, the unthinkable, ...
lit.”That which cannot or should not be thought, the unthinkable, incomprehensible, impenetrable, that which transcends the limits of thinking and over which therefore one should not ponder.
These 4 unthinkables are:
the sphere of a Buddha (buddha-visaya),
of the meditative absorptions (jha^na-visaya),
of karma-result (kamma-vipa^ka), and
brooding over the world (loka-cinta^), especially over an absolute first beginning of it
(s. A.IV.77).
"Therefore, o monks, do not brood over the world as to whether it is eternal or temporal, limited or endless .... Such brooding, O monks, is senseless, has nothing to do with genuine pure conduct (s. a^dibrahmacariyaka-si^la), does not lead to aversion, detachment, extinction, nor to peace, to full comprehension, enlightenment and Nibba^na, etc." (S.56.41).
para^ma^sa (q.v.)
sikkha^ ”training in higher mentality”; s. sikkha^.