..续本文上一页anger, and ignorance. Other examples of unwholesome kamma may include the following mental concomitants as well as their resultant actions through body, speech and mind: greed or desire for sensual pleasure, dejection, sloth and torpor, restlessness and anxiety, uncertainty of mind or lack of resolution, jealousy, avarice, and miserliness.

　　On the wholesome side, there are also ten skillful actions, three bodily, four verbal, and three mental, consisting of abstention from the ten unwholesome actions mentioned above. Wholesome actions depicted in this way are somewhat negative, at least in tone, through the use of the Pali word veramani, which means ”abstention.” But a negative expression does not necessarily mean a negative state of mind or action. Abstention from false speech, for instance, is a negative expression, but it also implies a positive commitment, since such abstention itself naturally signifies truthfulness. Refraining from stealing not only specifies that one should avoid such an act, but also implies a positive quality of respect for others” property rights.

　　The Buddha pointed out how the ten wholesome actions can be followed in both the negative and positive aspects. This may be listed as follows:

　　1. Abstaining from destruction of life, one cultivates loving-kindness and compassion, working for the welfare of all beings.

　　2. Abstaining from taking what is not given, one cultivates respect for others” property rights and earns a livelihood through fair means.

　　3. Abstaining from sexual misconduct, one practices self-restraint and observes good morals.

　　4. Abstaining from false speech, one adheres to truth, is honest and trustworthy.

　　5. Abstaining from malicious speech, one endeavors to reconcile people and promote harmony among community members.

　　6. Abstaining from harsh language, one practices pleasant and courteous speech.

　　7. Abstaining from frivolous speech, one speaks only speech which is useful, reasonable, and appropriate to the listener, time, and purpose.

　　8. Abstaining from covetous thoughts, one practices generosity and altruism.

　　9. Abstaining from thoughts of ill will, one cultivates goodwill and kind thoughts toward all beings, wishing them freedom from fear and suffering.

　　10. Abstaining from wrong view, one develops right understanding and right conviction in the law of kamma, believing in the fruits of wholesome and unwholesome actions.

　　Some of the more obvious examples of kusala mental qualities include concentration, mindfulness, calm, non-arrogance or humility, desire for that which is good (kusalachanda), joy in the Dhamma, and insight in the realization of Truth.

　　Criteria of wholesome and unwholesome actions

　　Generally, this may be just a matter of common sense for most people. Any judicious person can tell whether an action is wholesome or unwholesome, good or evil. According to Buddhism, it is action which defines a person as good or evil. We are what kamma makes of us.

　　However, in an age when there is a universal clamor for inpidual rights and freedom of expression, ethical concepts such as right and wrong, good and evil, are consistently reduced to a matter of mere personal opinions and social preferences. Logical positivism, a 20th century philosophical school, for instance, asserts that metaphysical theories and ethical propositions are fundamentally meaningless because a valid statement must be characterized either by its analytical property and conclusive verifiability, or at least by its being capable of confirmation through empirical experiment and observation.

　　So it is relevant here to point out that Buddhist ethical thoughts and values are not mere personal opinions or social preferences, but represent solid reality connected with human life and are based on…

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