temperature, heat, is identical with the heat-element (tejodha^tu, q.v.).
samuttha^na (- utuja)-rúpa: ”corporeality produced by temperature”; s. samuttha^na.
maha^ra^jika deva a class of heavenly beings of the sensuous sphere; s. deva.
”cause”, condition, reason; (Abhidhamma) root-condition. In sutta usage it is almost synonymous with paccaya, ”condition”, and often occurs together with it (”What is the cause, what is the condition”, ko hetu ko paccayo).
In Abhidhamma, it denotes the wholesome and unwholesome roots (múla, q.v.). In that sense, as ”root-condition” (hetu-paccaya; s. paccaya), it is the first of the 24 conditions given in the introduction to the Pattha^na (s. Guide, p. 117). The Dhs (1052-1082) and Pattha^na (Duka-patth; Guide, p. 144) have sections on roots (hetu). - The term is also used (a) for the classification of consciousness, as sa-hetuka and a-hetuka, with and without concomitant root-conditions; (b) for a division of rebirth consciousness into ahetuka, dvihetuka and tihetuka, without, with 2, or with 3 root-conditions (s. patisandhi).
Ahetuka-ditthi, the false view of the uncausedness of existence; s. ditthi.
s. ra^ga.
s. kala^pa, rúpa-kala^pa.
”demons”, titans, evil ghosts, inhabiting one of the lower worlds (apa^ya, q.v.).
cf. paccaya (1). - For the five c. of existence, s. paticca-samuppa^da (10).
skeptical: vicikiccha^ (q.v.), kankha^ (q.v.).
dhamma ”liable to perturbation”, is one who has not yet attained full mastery over the absorptions. In Pug. 3 it is said: "What person is liable to perturbation? Such a person gains the attainments of the fine-material and immaterial sphere (s. avacara). But he does not gain them at his wish, nor without toil and exertion; and not at his wish as regards place, object and duration, does he enter them or arise from them. Thus it is well possible that in case of such a person, through negligence, the attainments will become perturbed. This person is liable to perturbation."
and ritual, clinging to mere: (s. samyojana, upa^da^na).
kinha (or-kinna): s. deva, II.
pleasant, happy; happiness, pleasure, joy, bliss. It is one of the three feelings (s. vedana^) and may be either bodily or mental. The texts distinguish between the happiness of the senses and the h. of renunciation (A. II), worldly (carnal; sa^misa) and unworldly (non-carnal; nira^misa) happiness (M. 10). See A. II, ch. VIII. - Happiness is an indispensable condition for attaining concentration of mind (sama^dhi, q.v.), and therefore it is one of the 5 factors (or constituents) of the 1st absorption (jha^nanga; s. jha^na) and is present up to the 3rd absorption inclusively."The mind of the happy one has concentration as its fruit and reward" (A.X,1). - "In him who is filled with happiness, right concentration has found a foundation" (A.X,3).
deliverance through the perception of: cf. vimokkha (II. 3) To hold for beautiful or pure (subha) what is impure (asubha), is one of the 4 perversions (s. vipalla^sa).
s. samma^-sambodhi.
”eye” s. a^yatana. - The foll. 5 kinds of ”eyes” are mentioned and explained in CNid. (PTS, p. 235; the first 3 also in It. 52): 1. the physical eye (mamsa cakkhu), 2. the divine eye (dibba-cakkhu; s. abhin~n~a^), 3. the eye of wisdom (pan~n~a^-cakkhu), 4 the eye of a Buddha (Buddha-c.), 5. the eye of all-round knowledge (samanta-c.; a frequent appellation of the Buddha).
of action (wholesome or unwholesome): kammapatha (q.v.).
”elements”, are the ultimate constituents of a whole.
(1) The 4 physical elements (dha^tu or maha^-bhúta), popularly called earth, water, fire and wind, are to be understood as the primary qualities of matter. They are named in Pa^li: pathavi^-dha^tu, a^po-dha^tu, tejo-dha^tu, and va^yo-dha^tu. In Vis.M. XI, 2 the four elements are defined thus: "Whatever is characterized by hardness (thaddha-lakkkhana) is the earth or solid-element; by cohesion (a^bandhana) or fluidity, the water-element; by heating (paripa^cana), the fire or heat-element; by strengthening or supporting (vitthambhana), the wind or motion-element. All four are present in every material object, though in varying degrees of strength. If, for instance, the earth element predominates, the material object is called ”solid”, etc. - For the analysis of the 4 elements, s. dha^tu-vavattha^na.
(II) The 18 physical and mental elements that constitute the conditions or foundations of the process of perception, are:
1. visual organ (eye) 9. gustative object
2. auditory organ (ear) 10. body-impression
3. olfactory organ (nose) 11. eye-consciousness
4. gustatory organ (tongue) 12. ear-consciousness
5. tactile organ (body) 13. nose-consciousness
6. visible object 14. tongue-consciousness
7. sound or audible object 15. body-consciousness
8. odour or olfactive object
16. mind-element 17. mind-object
(mano-dha^tu) (dhamma-dha^tu)
18. mind-consciousness-element
(mano-vin~n~a^na-dha^tu)
1-10 are physical; 11-16 and 18 are mental; 17 may be either physical or mental. - 16 performs the function of advertence (a^vajjana) towards the object at the inception of a process of sensuous consciousness; it further performs the function of receiving (sampaticchana) the sensuous object. 18 performs, e.g., the function of investigation (santi^rana), determining (votthapana) and registering (tada^rammana) - (for its other functions, s. Table I). For the 14 functions of consciousness, s. vin~n~a^na-kicca.
Cf. M. 115; S. XIV and especially Vibh. II (Guide p. 28f), Vis.M. XV, 17ff.
Of the many further groupings of elements (enumerated in M. 115), the best known is that of the 3 world-elements: the sensuous world (ka^ma-dha^tu), the fine-material world (rúpa-dha^tu), the immaterial world (arúpa-dha^tu); further the sixfold group: the solid, liquid, heat, motion, space, consciousness (pathavi^, a^po, tejo, va^yo, a^ka^sa, vin~n~a^na; s. above I), described in M. 140; see also M. 112.
(1) ”pain”, painful feeling, which may be bodily and mental (s. vedana^).
(2) ”Suffering”, ”ill”. As the first of the Four Noble Truths (s. sacca) and the second of the three characteristics of existence (s. ti-lakkhana), the term dukkha is not limited to painful experience as under (1), but refers to the unsatisfactory nature and the general insecurity of all conditioned phenomena which, on account of their impermanence, are all liable to suffering, and this includes also pleasurable experience. Hence ”unsatisfactoriness” or ”liability to suffering” would be more adequate renderings, if not for stylistic reasons. Hence the first truth does not deny the existence of pleasurable experience, as is sometimes wrongly assumed. This is illustrated by the following texts:
"Seeking satisfaction in the world, monks, I had pursued my way. That satisfaction in the world I found. In so far as satisfaction existed in the world, I have well perceived it by wisdom. Seeking for misery in the world, monks, I had pursued my way. That misery in the world I found. In so far as misery existed in the world, I have well perceived it by wisdom. Seeking for the escape from the world, monks, I had pursued my way. That escape from the world I found. In so far as an escape from the world existed, I have well perceived it by wisdom" (A. 111, 101).
"If there were no satisfaction to be found in the world, beings would not be attached to the world .... If there were no misery to be found in the world, beings would not be repelled by the world .... If there were no escape from the world, beings could not escape therefrom" (A. 111, 102).
See dukkhata^. For texts on the Truth of Suffering, see W. of B. and ”Path”.
See The Three Basic Facts of Existence, II. Suffering (WHEEL 191/193).
4 ways of showing sangaha-vatthu. (q.v.).
of existence, s. khandha; corporeal groups, s. rúpa-kala^pa; corporeality-group, s. rúpa-ka^ya; mind-group, s. na^ma-ka^ya.
s. patigha.
”karmically wholesome” or ”profitable”, salutary, morally good, (skillful) Connotations of the term, according to Com. (Atthasa^lini), are: of good health, blameless, productive of favourable karma-result, skillful. It should be noted that Com. excludes the meaning ”skillful”, when the term is applied to states of consciousness.
It is defined in M. 9 as the 10 wholesome courses of action (s. kammapatha). In psychological terms, ”karmically wholesome” are all those karmical volitions (kamma-cetana^) and the consciousness and mental factors associated therewith, which are accompanied by 2 or 3 wholesome roots (s. múla), i.e. by greedlessness (alobha) and hatelessness (adosa), and in some cases also by non-delusion (amoha: wisdom, understanding). Such states of consciousness are regarded as ”karmically wholesome” as they are causes of favourable karma results and contain the seeds of a happy destiny or rebirth. From this explanation, two facts should be noted: (1) it is volition that makes a state of consciousness, or an act, ”good” or ”bad”; (2) the moral criterion in Buddhism is the presence or absence of the 3 wholesome or moral roots (s. múla).
The above explanations refer to mundane (lokiya, q.v.) wholesome consciousness. Supermundane wholesome (lokuttara-kusala) states, i.e. the four paths of sanctity (s. ariyapuggala), have as results only the corresponding four fruitions; they do not constitute karma, nor do they lead to rebirth, and this applies also to the good actions of an Arahat (Tab. I, 73-80) and his meditative states (Tab. 1, 81-89), which are all karmically inoperative (functional; s. kiriya).
Kusala belongs to a threefold division of all consciousness, as found in the Abhidhamma (Dhs.), into wholesome (kusala), unwholesome (akusala) and karmically neutral (avya^kata), which is the first of the triads (tika) in the Abhidhamma schedule (ma^tika^); s. Guide, pp. 4ff., 12ff; Vis.M. XIV, 83ff.
the elements of the effort for: pa^risuddhipadha^niyanga (q.v.).
formula, the 3-fold: ti-sarana (q.v.).
intercourse, unlawful: s. ka^mesu miccha^ca^ra.
vipassana^ ya^nika = sukkha-vipassaka (q.v.).
”happy course of existence”; s. gati.
vipassaka = suddha-vipassana^-ya^nika: these terms are used only in the Com., as also their counterpart samathaya^nika.
the 4 Noble: sacca (q.v.). - 2-fold knowledge of the t.; s. saccan~a^na.
a class of heavenly beings in the sensuous plane; s. deva (1).
lit.”something which one grasps, to which one clings, i.e. the 5 groups of existence (khandha, q.v.). In the suttas, the word is mostly used in such expressions as "One of the 2 fruits may be expected: either perfect wisdom or, if the groups are still remaining (sati upa^di-sese, ”if there is a remainder of groups ), Ana^ga^mi^ship" (D. 22). Further (A. IV. 118): "Here the Perfect One has passed into the Nibba^na-element in which no more groups are remaining (anupa^di-sesa)." Cf. nibba^na. upa^dinna rúpa: ”karmically acquired corporeality”, or ”matter clung-to (by karma)”, is identical with karma-produced corporeality (kammaja-rúpa; s. samuttha^na). In Vis.M. XIV it is said: "That corporcality which, later on, we shall refer to as ”karma-produced” (kammaja), is, for its being dependent on previous (pre-natal) karma, called ”karmically acquired”.”” The term (upa^dinna) occurs so in the suttas, e.g. M. 28 (WHEEL 101), 62, 140. See Dhs. §990; Khandha Vibh.
”substratum of existence”. In the Com. there are enumerated 4 kinds: the 5 groups (khandha, q.v.), sensuous desire (ka^ma), mental defilements (kilesa, q.v.), karma (q.v.). In the suttas it occurs frequently in Sn. (vv. 33, 364, 546, 728), and, with reference to Nibba^na, in the phrase "the abandoning of all substrata" (sabbúpadhi-patinissagga; D. 14). See viveka (3).
the 4 noble: ariya-vamsa (q.v.).
as a general term for the 5 sense-organs (cakkhu-vatthu, etc ) is frequent in the Com., and often used together with a^rammana (object). This usage, however, is already indicated in the Abh. Canon: ”Cakkhum p”etam... vatthum p”etam” (Dhs. § 597; Vibh., p.71, PTS): ”cakkhuvin~n~a^nassa vatthu” (Dhs. §§ 679ff.).
”physical base”, i.e. the 6 physical organs on which the mental process is based, are the 5 physical sense-organs and, according to the Com., the heart (hadaya-vatthu, q.v.) as the 6th. This 6th vatthu must not be confounded with the 6th a^yatana, which is a collective name for all consciousness whatever. - (App.).
s. si^la.
courses (of existence): duggati (s. gati).
s. jha^na.
”unwholesome”, ...
are all those karmic volitions (kamma-cetana^; s. cetana^) and the consciousness and mental concomitants associated therewith, which are accompanied either by greed (lobha) or hate (dosa) or merely delusion (moha); and all these phenomena are causes of unfavourable karma-results and contain the seeds of unhappy destiny or rebirth.
Cf. karma, paticca-samuppa^da (1), Tab. II.
the 7 ”proclivities”, inclinations, or tendencies are: sensuous greed (ka^ma-ra^ga, s. samyojana), grudge (patigha), speculative opinion (ditthi, q.v.), sceptical doubt (vicikiccha^, q.v.), conceit (ma^na, q.v.), craving for continued existence (bhavara^ga), ignorance (avijja^, q.v.) (D. 33; A. VII, 11, 12).
"These things are called ”proclivities” since, in consequence of their pertinacity, they ever and again tend to become the conditions for the arising of ever new sensuous greed, etc.”” (Vis.M. XXII, 60).
Yam. VII, first determines in which beings such and such proclivities exist, and which proclivities, and with regard to what, and in which sphere of existence. Thereafter it gives an explanation concerning their overcoming, their penetration, etc. Cf. Guide VI (vii). According to Kath. several ancient Buddhist schools erroneously held the opinion that the anusayas, as such, meant merely latent, hence karmically neutral qualities, which however Contradicts the Therava^da conception. Cf. Guide V, 88, 108, 139.
A fully ordained disciple of the Buddha is called a bhikkhu."Mendicant monk" may be suggested as the closest equivalent for "Bhikkhu", literally it means "he who begs" but bhikkhus do not beg. They silently stand at the door for alms. They live on what is spontaneously given by the supporters. He is not a priest as he is no mediator between God and man. He has no vows for life, but he is bound by his rules which he takes of his own accord. He leads a life of voluntary poverty and celibacy. If he is unable to live the Holy Life, he can discard the robe at any time.
image (during concentration): s. nimitta, kasina, sama^dhi.
”woeful course” (of existence); s. gati.
”compassion”, is one of the 4 sublime abodes (brahma-viha^ra, q.v.).
”lightness”, or ”agility”, may be of 3 kinds: of corporeality (rúpassa lahuta^; s. khandha, I ), of mental factors (ka^ya-lahuta^), and of consciousness (citta-lahuta^). Cf. Tab. II.
one, the: gotrabhú (q.v.).
”altruistic (or sympathetic) joy”, is one of the 4 sublime abodes (brahma-viha^ra, q.v.).
(rúpa, ka^ya, citta): ”elasticity” (of corporeality, mental factors, consciousness); s. khandha (I) and Tab. II.
s. lahuta^.
lokiya (q.v.).
karmically: avya^kata (q.v.); n. feelings, s. vedana^.
”individual”, ”person”, as well as the synonyms: personality, individuality, being (satta), self (atta^), etc., in short all terms designating a personal entity, hence also: I, you, he, man, god, etc., all these, according to Buddhism, are mere names for certain combinations of material and mental processes, and apart from them they have no real existence. They are to be considered as mere ”conventional modes of expression” (voha^ra-vacana), and on that level they may be used, and are so used in the sutta texts, if taken "without misapprehending them" (s. quote from D. 9 under paramattha). With such tacit reservations, the term puggala occurs quite frequently in the suttas.
In the ultimate sense (paramattha, q.v.), however, there exist only ever-changing physical and mental phenomena, flashing up and dying every moment. - Kath., in its first section, discusses the question whether "in the absolute sense, any personality (puggala) can be found" (s. Guide, pp. 62ff). - See paramattha, anatta^.
merit, meritorious, is a popular term for karmically wholesome (kusala) action. Opposite terms: apun~n~a, ”demerit”; pa^pa, ”bad”, ”evil”, The value of meritorious action is often stressed, e.g., in the Treasure Store Sutta (s. Khp. Tr.), Dhp 18, 118, 122. - The Community of Holy Monks (ariya-sangha), the third Refuge (s. ti-sarana), is said to be "the incomparable field of merit in the world" (anuttaram pun~n~akkhettam lokassa); s. anussati 3. The Arahats, however, having transcended all life-affirming and rebirth-producing actions, are said to be "beyond merit and demerit"; see Sn. 520, 547, 636, 790. - See foll. 3 articles.
pi^ti (q.v.); further s. bojjhanga.
s. sacca.
kusala (q.v.).
abodes (or States): brahma-viha^ra (q.v.).
(adj.), sun~n~ata^ (noun): void (ness), empty (emptiness). As a doctrinal term it refers, in Therava^da, exclusively to the anatta^ doctrine,.i.e. the unsubstantiality of all phenomena: "Void is the world ... because it is void of a self and anything belonging to a self" (sun~n~am attena va^ attaniyena va^; S. XXXV, 85); also stated of the 5 groups of existence (khandha, q.v.) in the same text. See also M. 43, M. 106. - In CNidd. (quoted in Vis.M. XXI, 55), it is said: "Eye ... mind, visual objects ... mind-objects, visual consciousness ... mind-consciousness, corporeality ... consciousness, etc., are void of self and anything belonging to a self; void of permanency and of anything lasting, eternal or immutable.. They are coreless: without a core of permanency, or core of happiness or core of self." - In M. 121, the voiding of the mind of the cankers, in the attainment of Arahatship, is regarded as the "fully purified and incomparably highest (concept of) voidness. - See Sn. v. 1119; M. 121; M. 122 (WHEEL 87); Pts.M. II: Sun~n~a-katha^; Vis.M. XXI, 53ff.
Right: samma^-sankappa;.s. sacca, magga.
away, contemplation of the: vivattanupassana^; s. vipassana^.
is an Abh. term but already alluded to in the old sutta texts, e.g. M. 149: ”a^yatim pan~cúpa^da^nakkhandha^ upacayam gacchanti”, or in D.2: ”Ayam ka^yo ... odana-kumma^s” upacayo”.
rúpassa: ”growth of corporeality”; s. khandha I; App.
”deliverance”, is of 2 kinds: deliverance of mind (ceto-vimutti, q.v.) and deliverance through wisdom (pan~n~a^-vimutti, q.v.).
”Deliverance of mind”, in the highest sense, is that kind of concentration (sama^dhi) which is bound up with the path of Arahatship (arahatta-magga);”deliverance through wisdom” is the knowledge (n~a^na) bound up with the fruition of Arahatship (arahatta-phala). Cf. A. V, 142.
There are also 5 kinds of deliverance, identical with the 5 kinds of overcoming (paha^na, q.v.).
image (during concentration): s. nimitta, sama^dhi, kasina.
”recollection”, meditation, contemplation. The six recollections often described in the Suttas (e.g. A. VI, 10, 25; D. 33) are: (1) recollection of the Buddha, (2) his Doctrine, (3) his Community of noble disciples, (4) of morality, (5) liberality, (6) heavenly beings (buddha^nussati, dhamma^nussati, sangha^nussati, si^la^nussati, ca^ga^nussati, devata^nussati).
(1) "The noble disciple, Maha^na^ma, recollects thus: ”This Blessed One is holy, a fully Enlightened One, perfected in wisdom and conduct, faring happily, knower of the worlds, unsurpassed leader of men to be trained, teacher of heavenly beings and men, a Buddha, a Blessed One.”
(2) ”Well proclaimed by the Blessed One is the Doctrine (dhamma), directly visible, with immediate fruit, inviting investigation, leading on to Nibba^na, to be comprehended by the wise, each by himself.”
(3) ”Of good conduct is the Community (Sangha) of the Blessed One”s disciples, of upright conduct, living on the right path, performing their duties, to wit: the 4 pairs of men or 8 individuals (s. ariya puggala). This Community of the Blessed One”s disciples is worthy of offerings, worthy of hospitality, worthy of gifts, worthy of reverence with raised hands, the unsurpassed field for doing meritorious deeds.”
(4) "The noble disciple further recollects his own morality (si^la) which is unbroken, without any breach, undefiled, untarnished, conducive to liberation, praised by the wise, not dependent (on craving or opinions), leading to concentration.
(5) "The noble disciple further recollects his own liberality (ca^ga) thus: ”Blessed truly am I, highly blessed am I who, amongst beings defiled with the filth of stinginess, live with heart free from stinginess, liberal, open-handed, rejoicing in giving, ready to give anything asked for, glad to give and share with others.”
(6) "The noble disciple further recollects the heavenly beings (devata^): ”There are the heavenly beings of the retinue of the Four Great Kings, the heavenly beings of the World of the Thirty-Three, the Ya^madevas ... and there are heavenly beings besides (s. deva). Such faith, such morality, such knowledge, such liberality, such insight, possessed of which those heavenly beings, after vanishing from here, are reborn in those worlds, such things are also found in me.”" (A. III,70; VI,10; XI,12).
"At the time when the noble disciple recollects the Perfect One ... at such a time his mind is neither possessed of greed, nor of hate, nor of delusion. Quite upright at such a time is his mind owing to the Perfect One ... With upright mind the noble disciple attains understanding of the sense, understanding of the law, attains joy through the law. In the joyous one rapture arises. With heart enraptured, his whole being becomes stilled. Stilled within his being, he feels happiness; and the mind of the happy one becomes firm. Of this noble disciple it is said that amongst those gone astray, he walks on the right path, among those suffering he abides free from suffering. Thus having reached the stream of the law, he develops the recollection of the Enlightened One...." (A. VI, 10).
In A. I, 21 (PTS: I, xvi) and A. I, 27 (PTS: xx. 2) another 4 recollections are added: mindfulness on death (marana-sati, q.v.), on the body (ka^yagata^-.sati, q.v.), on breathing (a^na^pa^na-sati, q.v.), and the recollection of peace (upasama^nussati, q.v.).
The first six recollections are fully explained in Vis.M. VII, the latter four in Vis.M. VIII.
s. moha, avijja^.
This compound term is used only in the Com. The only place in the suttas where the first part, dhuta, is used in the above sense, is found in S. XIV. The names of the performers of these 13 ascetical exercises, however, are all mentioned in the suttas, but scattered here and there, for instance: pamsukúlika, a^ran~n~ika, pindapa^tika, eka^sanika, teci^varika, sapa^da^naca^ri^, sosa^nika, abhhoka^sika, nesajjika, yatha^santhatika, in M. 5, 113; A. V, 181-190, etc.; rukkhamúlika, khalupaccha^bhattika and pattapindika in A. V, 189f. etc.
(result of supermundane path): phala; s. ariyapuggala (A) .
of the body, contemplation of the: s. asubha, si^vathika^.
(cankers), the 4: a^sava (q.v.).
lit.”wrongly-performed-ness” (ku+krta+ya), i.e. scruples, remorse, uneasiness of conscience, worry, is one of the karmically unwholesome (akusala) mental faculties (Tab. II) which, whenever it arises, is associated with hateful (discontented) consciousness (Tab. I and III, 30, 31). It is the ”repentance over wrong things done, and right things neglected” (Com. to A. I). Restlessness and scruples (uddhacca-kukkucca), combined, are counted as one of the 5 mental hindrances (ni^varana, q.v.).
the 4 bodily: iriya^patha (q.v.).
kukkucca (q.v.).
sphere (-world): s. avacara, loka.
”good conduct”, is 3-fold, in body, speech and mind, and comprises the 10 wholesome courses of action (s. kammapatha). According to A. X, 61, it has sense-control as its condition. See D. 33, A. II, 17; III, 2.
tathata^ (q.v.).
”restlessness”, belongs to the 10 fetters (samyojana, q.v.), and to the 5 hindrances (ni^varana, q.v.). It is one of those 4 mental factors inseparably associated with all unwholesome consciousness (akusala-sa^dha^rana, q.v.). Cf. Tab. II.
(ka^ya-, citta- ): ”uprightness” (of mental factors and of consciousness), is associated with all pure consciousness. Cf. Tab. II.
s. lahuta^.
lit.”sitting close by”, i.e. a ”lay adherent”, is any lay follower who is filled with faith and has taken refuge in the Buddha, his doctrine and his community of noble disciples (A. VIII, 25). His virtue is regarded as pure if he observes the 5 Precepts (pan~ca-si^la; s. sikkha^pada). He should avoid the following wrong ways of livelihood: trading in arms, in living beings, meat, alcohol and poison (A. V, 177). See also A. VIII, 75.
”moment of access”; s. javana.
n~a^na = sankha^rupekkha^-n~a^na (q.v.).
”equanimity”, also called tatra-majjhattata^ (q.v.), is an ethical quality belonging to the sankha^ra-group (s. khandha) and should therefore not be confounded with indifferent feeling (adukkha-m-asukha^ vedana^) which sometimes also is called upekkha^ (s. vedana^).
upekkha^ is one of the 4 sublime abodes (brahma-viha^ra, q.v.), and of the factors of enlightenment (bojjhanga, q.v.). See Vis.M. IV, 156ff.
lit.”fasting”, i.e.”fasting day”, is the full-moon day, the new-moon day, and the two days of the first and last moonquarters. On full-moon and new-moon days, the Disciplinary Code, the Pa^timokkha, is read before the assembled community of monks (bhikkhu), while on the mentioned 4 moon-days many of the faithful lay devotees go to visit the monasteries, and there take upon themselves the observance of the 8 rules (attha-si^la; sikkha^pada). See A. VIII, 41ff.
to the highest gods, passing: s. ana^ga^mi^.
”purification”, purity. The ”7 stages of purification” (satta-visuddhi) form the substructure of Upatissa”s Vimutti-Magga (The Path To Freedom), preserved only in Chinese, as well as of Buddhaghosa”s monumental work, Visuddhi-Magga (The Path of Purification), based on the former work.
The only place in the Canon where these 7 kinds of purification are mentioned is M. 24, "The Simile of the Stage-coach" (s.”Path”, §64), wherein their purpose and goal are illustrated. There it is said that the real and ultimate goal does not consist in purification of morality, or of mind, or of view, etc., but in total deliverance and extinction. Now, just as one mounts the first coach and travels to the second coach, then mounts the second coach and travels with it to the third coach, etc., in exactly the same way the goal of (I) the purification of morality (sila-visuddhi) is (II) the purification of mind (citta-visuddhi); its goal: (III) the purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi); its goal: (IV) the purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^vitarana-visuddhi); its goal: (V) the purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); its goal: (VI) the purification by knowledge and vision of the path-progress (patipada^-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); its goal: (VII) the purification of knowledge and vision (n~a^nadassana-visuddhi); but the goal of this purification is deliverance freed from all clinging.
(I) "Purification of morality (si^la-visuddhi) consists of the 4-fold purity of morality (catu-pa^risuddhi-si^la), namely: restraint with regard to the Disciplinary Code (pa^timokkhasamvara-si^la), sense-restraint (indriysamvara-si^la), purity of livelihood (a^ji^vapa^risuddhi-si^la), morality with regard to the 4 requisites (paccaya-sannissita-si^la)" (Vis.M. XVIII). On these 4 terms, s. si^la. - In the case of a layman, it entails the observance of whatever moral rules (5 or more) he has taken upon himself.
(II) "Purification of mind (citta-visuddhi) is a name for the 8 attainments (= absorptions: jha^na, q.v.), as well as for neighbourhood-concentration (upaca^ra-sama^dhi; s. sama^dhi)." (ib.).
(III) "By purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi) is meant the understanding, according to reality, of mind and corporeality (na^marúpa, q.v.)... which is founded on undeludedness (wisdom) as base, and which in manifold ways determines mind and corporeality after overcoming all belief in a persollality (atta^: self, ego.)." (ib.).
(IV) "By purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^-vitarana-visuddhi) is meant the understanding which, by grasping the conditions of this mind and corporeality, has escaped from all doubt with regard to the 3 times (past, present, future)." (ib. XIX)
(V) "By purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is meant that understanding which knows the right path from the wrong path: ”This is the right path, that the wrong path.”" (ib. XX)
In order to attain this 5th stage of purification, one at first should develop methodical insight (naya-vipassana^), i.e. through contemplation of the 5 groups of existence (khandha, q.v.). For whosoever does not yet possess a perfectly developed insight, to him such phenomena as effulgence of light, etc. (see below), arising during insight, may become impediments in the 3 kinds of full understanding here considered (s. parin~n~a^).
”As soon as the manifold ways and characteristics of the 4 Truths (sacca) and the dependent origination (paticcasamuppa^da) have become clear to the meditating disciple, he says to himself: Thus do these things never before arisen arise, and having arisen they disappear again. Thus do the formations of existence ever and again arise as something quite new. But not only are they something new, they are moreover also of limited duration, like a dew-drop at sunrise, like a bubble, like a line drawn with a stick in the water, like a mustard seed placed on the point of an arrow, or like a flash of lightning. Also as something unsubstantial and empty do they appear, as jugglery, as a mirage .... Merely something subject to vanishing arises, and having arisen disappears again.”"
During such insight practice, however, may arise the 10 imperfections (or defilements) of insight (vipassanúpakkilesa): effulgence of light (obha^sa), knowledge (n~a^na), rapture (pi^ti), tranquillity (passaddhi), happiness (sukha), determination (adhimokkha), energy (paggaha), awareness (upattha^na), delight (nikanti). - See Vis.M. XX, 105f. (App.).
Excepting the last one, ”delight”, they are not imperfections or defilements in themselves, but may become a basis for them through the arising of pride or delight or by a wrong conclusion that one of the holy paths has been attained. He, however, who is watchful and experienced in insight practice, will know that these states of mind do not indicate attainment of the true path, but are only symptoms or concomitants of insight meditation.
"Thus far the meditating disciple has determined 3 of the truths, namely while determining the corporeal and mental phenomena he has, through purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of suffering”. While grasping the conditions he has, through purification by overcoming doubt (kankha^-vitarana-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of the origin of suffering”. While determining the right path, he has, through purification by knowledge and vision of what is path and not-path (magga^magga-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi), determined the ”truth of the path” (leading to the extinction of suffering)."
(VI) Purification by knowledge and vision of the path-progress (patipada^-n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is the insight perfected in 8 kinds of knowledge, together with the 9th knowledge, the ”knowledge adapting itself to truth”.
By the 8 kinds of knowledge are here meant the following, which are freed from defilements, follow the right process, and are considered as insight, namely:
1. knowledge consisting in contemplation of rise and fall (udayabbaya^nupassana^-n~a^na),
2. in contemplation of dissolution (bhanga^nupassana^-n~a^na),
3. in awareness of terror (or the fearful) (bhayatúpattha^na^-n~a^na),
4. in contemplation of misery (a^di^nava^nupassana^-n~a^na),
5. in contemplation of aversion (nibbida^nupassana^-n~a^na),
6. in the desire for deliverance (muccitu-kamyata^-n~a^na),
7. in reflecting contemplation (patisankha^nupassana^-n~a^na),
8. in equanimity regarding all formations of existence (sankha^rupekkha^-n~a^na) - which is followed by
9. in adaptation to truth (sacca^nulomika-n~a^na).
(1) consists in the meditative observation of the 3 characteristics of existence (impermanence, suffering, no self) in one”s own bodily and mental processes. As long as the mind is still disturbed by the 10 imperfections (s. V), the 3 characteristics will not become fully clear in their true nature. Only when the mind is free from these imperfections can the characteristics be observed clearly.
(2) When through such repeated practice, knowledge and mindfulness have grown keen and the bodily and mental formations become apparent quickly, at that stage the phase of dissolution of these formations will become prominent.
"Consciousness with (e.g.) materiality as its object arises and dissolves. Having reflected on that object, he contemplates the dissolution of (reflecting) consciousness." (Pts.M. I, 57, quoted in Vis.M. XXI, 11).
The 8 blessings of this knowledge are: abandoning the belief in eternal existence (bhava-ditthi), giving up attachment to life, constant right application (of mind to meditative endeavour), a purified livelihood, overcoming of anxiety, absence of fear, acquisition of forbearance and gentleness, conquest of discontent and sensual delight (Vis.M. XXI, 28).
(3) Knowledge consisting in awareness of terror (or fearfulness) is the seeing of terror in the conditions as well as the continuity of existence. For whoso considers the formations as impermanent, to him the conditions of existence (i.e. the karma-formations producing ever new existence) appear as terror, as driving towards death. Whoso considers the formations as misery, to him the continuity of existence appears as terror, as something oppressive. Whoso considers the formations as impersonal, to him the karmaformations, as well as the continuity of existence, appear as terror, as an empty village, as a mirage, etc.
(4) Contemplation of misery (or danger) is another aspect of the awareness of terror: "The origin (of existence) is terror ... continuance of existence is terror ... arising is suffering”, such understanding in the awareness of terror is the knowledge of misery.”Non-arising is bliss”, this is knowledge of the peaceful state (Pts.M. I, 59); that is, the no-more-arising is safety, is happiness, is Nibba^na.
(5) Contemplation of aversion means: aversion for all formations as terror, therefore its name ”awareness of terror” has come into use. Because it has made known the misery of all these formations, therefore it has received the name of ”contemplation of misery” (a^di^nava^nupassana^). Because it has arisen through aversion for those formations, therefore it is known as ”contemplation of aversion” (nibbida^nupassana^).
(6) Knowledge consisting in the desire for deliverance means: the desire for freedom and escape from all formations of existence.. For feeling aversion for all formations, becoming weary of them, finding no more delight in them, the mind does not cling to a single one of all these formations.
(7) Reflecting contemplation is the repeated meditative discernment of the formations of existence, attributing to them the 3 characteristics of existence, with the desire to find deliverance from all forms of existence.
(8) Equanimity regarding all formations: "When the meditator (through reflecting contemplation) has discerned the formations by applying the 3 characteristics to them and sees them as void, he abandons both terror and delight, and becomes indifferent and equanimous with regard to all formations; he neither takes them as I nor as ”mine”; he is like a man who has divorced his wife" (Vis.M. XXI, 61).
Now, while continuing to contemplate the 3 characteristics of existence and perceiving the tranquil lot of Nibba^na as the peace, this equanimity-knowledge becomes the triple gateway to liberation. As it is said (Pts.M. II, p. 48):
"Three gateways to liberation (vimokkha-mukha; s. vimokkha I) lead to escape from the world, namely: that the mind is contemplating all formations as limited, and is rushing forward to the conditionless element (animitta-dha^tu); that the mind is stirred with regard to all formations of existence, and is rushing forward to the desireless element (appanihita-dha^tu); that the mind sees all things as something foreign, and is rushing forward to the void element (sun~n~ata^-dha^tu)."
At this stage, and through the triple gateway, the diversification of path attainment takes place, according to the 7 kinds of noble persons (ariya-puggala, q.v.); on this see Vis.M. XXI, 74ff.
The 6th, 7th and 8th knowledges, according to Vis.M. XXI, form really only one single knowledge in its first, middle and final stages of development. This knowledge is also known as the ”insight leading to path ascent” (vuttha^na-ga^mini^-vipassana^, q.v.).
(9) Adaptation to truth (or conformity with truth) is called that knowledge which, while contemplating impermanency, etc. adapts itself to the preceding 8 kinds of insight-knowledge, as well as to the immediately following supermundane path and to the 37 elements pertaining to enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya-dhamma, q.v.). It is identical with adaptation-knowledge (anuloman~a^na).
"Whosoever has cultivated, developed, and frequently practised ”equanimity regarding all formations” in him arises very strong faith known as determination (adhimokkha-saddha^) and his energy is better exerted, his mindfulness better established, his mind better concentrated, and a still stronger ”equanimity regarding the formations” arises.”Now the path will reveal itself”, thus thinking, the meditator contemplates with his equanimity-knowledge all formations as impermanent, etc., and thereafter that knowledge sinks into the subconscious stream of existence (s. bhavanga-sota^). Immediately afterwards there arises advertence at the mind-door (s. vin~n~a^na-kicca). And just like equanimity-knowledge, the adaptation-knowledge, too, takes as its object the formations, regarding them as something impermanent, miserable and impersonal. Thereupon, while continuing the uninterrupted continuity of consciousness (citta-santati), there arises the 1st impulsive moment (javana, q.v.), called ”preparation” (parikamma), taking the same formations as object. Immediately thereafter, with the same formations as object, there arises the 2nd impulsive moment, known as ”access” (upaca^ra). And again immediately after that, there arises the impulsive moment called ”adaptation” (anuloma)."
(VII) Purification of knowledge and vision (n~a^nadassana-visuddhi) is the knowledge associated with any of the 4 kinds of supermundane path-consciousness (s. ariyapuggala).
"Immediately upon this adaptation-knowledge there arises the ”maturity-knowlege” (gotrabhú-n~a^na; s. gotrabhú) taking as object the Unconditioned, the standstill of existence, the absence of becoming, cessation, Nibba^na, while at the same time transcending the rank (gotta = gotra: lineage), designation and plane of the worldling (puthujjana, q.v.), and entering the rank, designation and plane of the Noble Ones (ariya), being the first turning towards Nibba^na as object, the first thinking of it, the first concentration on it, and the condition for the path ... forming the culmination of insight, and never as such coming back again.
””As the immediate continuation following upon that maturity knowledge (gotrabhú-n~a^na), there arises the first path-consciousness (Stream-entrance) forever destroying the first 3 of the 10 fetters of existence (samyojana, q.v.), and closing the entrance to the lower worlds. Immediately after this path-knowledge, there arise, as its result, 2 or 3 path-produced states of consciousness, the fruitional consciousness (phala-citta). Immediately after the sinking of this consciousness into the subconscious stream of existence, the retrospective knowledge (paccavekkhana-n~a^na, q.v.) arises, having the path-consciousness as its object" (Vis.M. XXI). For the 3 higher paths, s. ariya-puggala.
Each of the 4 kinds of path-consciousness performs at the one and the same time 4 functions, namely: the function of full understanding (parin~n~a^, q.v.) of suffering, the function of overcoming (paha^na, q.v.) the origin of suffering, the function of realizing (sacchikiriya^) the extinction of suffering, the function of developing (bha^vana^, q.v.) the supermundane Noble Eightfold Path (magga, q.v.).
See Path of Purification, by Buddhaghosa, tr. by n~yanamoli (BPS); Path of Freedom, by Upatissa (BPS).
sobhana (q.v.).
morality consisting in good: abhisama^ca^rikasi^la (q.v.) .
consciousness (and b. space), Sphere of: s. jha^na 5, 6.
(lit.”means of shaking off (the defilements)”);”means of purification”, ascetic or austere practices. These are strict observances recommended by the Buddha to monks as a help to cultivate contentedness, renunciation, energy and the like. One or more of them may be observed for a shorter or longer period of time.
"The monk training himself in morality should take upon himself the means of purification, in order to gain those virtues through which the purity of morality will become accomplished, to wit: fewness of needs, contentedness, austerity, detachment, energy, moderation, etc." (Vis.M. II).
Vis.M. II describes 13 dhutangas, consisting in the vows of
1. wearing patched-up robes: pamsukúlik”anga,
2. wearing only three robes: teci^varik”anga,
3. going for alms: pindapa^tik”anga,
4. not omitting any house whilst going for alms: sapada^nikanga,
5. eating at one sitting: eka^sanik”anga,
6. eating only from the alms-bowl: pattapindik”anga,
7. refusing all further food: khalu-paccha^-bhattik”anga,
8. living in the forest: a^ran~n~ik”anga,
9. living under a tree: rukkha-múlik”anga,
10. living in the open air: abbhoka^sik”anga,
11. living in a cemetery: susa^nik”anga,
12. being satisfied with whatever dwelling: yatha^-santhatik”anga,
13. sleeping in the sitting position (and never lying down): nesajjik”anga.
These 13 exercises are all, without exception, mentioned in the old sutta texts (e.g. M. 5, 113; A.V., 181-90), but never together in one and the same place.
"Without doubt, o monks, it is a great advantage to live in the forest as a hermit, to collect one”s alms, to make one”s robes from picked-up rags, to be satisfied with three robes" (A.I, 30).
The vow, e.g. of No. 1, is taken in the words: "I reject robes offered to me by householders," or "I take upon myself the vow of wearing only robes made from picked-up rags." Some of the exercises may also be observed by the lay-adherent.
Here it may be mentioned that each newly ordained monk, immediately after his being admitted to the Order, is advised to be satisfied with whatever robes, alms-food, dwelling and medicine he gets: "The life of the monks depends on the collected alms as food ... on the root of a tree as dwelling ... on robes made from patched-up rags ... on stale cow”s urine as medicine. May you train yourself therein all your life."
Since the moral quality of any action depends entirely upon the accompanying intention and volition, this is also the case with these ascetic practices, as is expressly stated in Vis.M. Thus the mere external performance is not the real exercise, as it is said (Pug. 275-84): "Some one might be going for alms; etc. out of stupidity and foolishness - or with evil intention and filled with desires - or out of insanity and mental derangement - or because such practice had been praised by the Noble Ones...." These exercises are, however properly observed "if they are taken up only for the sake of frugality, of contentedness, of purity, etc."(App.)
On dhutanga practice in modern Thailand, see With Robes and Bowl, by Bhikkhu Khantipalo (WHEEL 82/83).
”evil conduct”, is threefold: in deeds, words and thoughts. See kammapatha (I).
(abstr. noun fr. dukkha): ”the state of suffering”, painfulness, unpleasantness, the unsatisfactoriness of existence."There are three kinds of suffering: (1) suffering as pain (dukkha-dukkhata^), (2) the suffering inherent in the formations (sankha^ra-dukkhata^), (3) the suffering in change (viparina^ma-dukkhata^)" (S. XLV, 165; D. 33).
(1) is the bodily or mental feeling of pain as actual]y felt. (2) refers to the oppressive nature of all formations of existence (i.e. all conditioned phenomena), due to their continual arising and passing away; this includes also experiences associated with neutral feeling. (3) refers to bodily and mental pleasant feelings, "because they are the cause for the arising of pain when they change" (Vis.M. XIV, 34f).
indriya (q.v.); see also paccaya 16.
javana (q.v.).
(in joy, sadness etc.): s. manopavica^ra.
”supermundane”, is a term for the 4 paths and 4 fruitions of sota^patti, etc. (s. ariya-puggala), with Nibba^na as ninth. Hence one speaks of ”9 supermundane things” (nava-lokuttara-dhamma). Cf. prec.
s. oja^, a^ha^ra. - a^ha^ra is one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.) - n.- produced corporeality; s. samuttha^na.
For the 4 Truths of suffering, s. sacca; further s. ti-lakkhana.
the 7: s. dhana (q.v.).